Reverse Engineering and CAD

modeling

[Link]
GCT, CBE
 UNIT- II Reverse Engineering and CAD
modeling
• Basic concept - Digitization techniques – Model
reconstruction – Data Processing for Rapid
Prototyping: CAD model preparation, Data
requirements – Geometric modeling techniques:
Wireframe, surface and solid modeling – data
formats - Data interfacing, Part orientation and
support generation, Support structure design, Model
Slicing, Tool path generation.
 Basic Concept - RE process
• The whole Reverse Engineering process can be divided
into four steps:
1. Data capturing - Scanning – Digitizing
2. Pre-processing captured data
3. CAD modeling
4. CAD model updating
 Basic Concept - RE process
• 1. Data capturing: The first step in reverse engineering is to acquire the
geometrical shape of the physical models using some measuring devices.
The captured information is usually represented as a set of three-
dimensional (3D) data points, 2D slices or images. A variety of equipment
can be used for data capturing.
• During the scanning process the system records information about the
surface in the form of numerical data – generates a point’s cloud matrix
(3D-coordinates).
• 2. Data pre-processing: The captured data are first pre-processed
to facilitate subsequent surface modeling. Typical data pre-
processing steps include registration, data cleaning, data reduction
and segmentation.
• Registration transforms the measured results obtained from
different setups into a single coordinate system.
• Data cleaning wipes out all points not on the part surface.
• Data reduction reduces the number of points if they are too many
to handle.
• Segmentation is the most important step during data pre-
processing. It subdivides the combined data set into individual
regions, each representing a single geometric feature that can be
mathematically represented by a simple surface.
• 3. CAD modeling: The segmented data are further transformed into
individual surfaces. Several mathematical schemes for representing
geometrical shapes are available. One can also use interpolation or fitting
techniques for identifying the parameters of the geometrical shape. After
fitting individual surfaces to measured points, the surfaces must be
further processed to form the complete CAD model - Model
reconstruction system software - conceptual model supported by a
triangular surface geometry.
• 4. CAD model updating: When a product design is directly modified on
the shop floor through adjustments to the physical prototypes, the CAD
model must be further updated according to the changes made to the
physical part.
 Basic Concept
• Reverse Engineering (RE) is the process of generating a Computer Aided
Design (CAD) model from an existing physical part. It enables the
reconstruction of an object by capturing the component's physical
dimensions and geometrical features.
It allows to generate surface
models by 3D-scanning
technique.
It is now an accepted part of
the product design and
manufacturing process,
especially when relating to
complex surfaces, which are
often very difficult to create
on conventional route in
modern CAD-software.
 Digitization techniques
• Digitizing is the representation of a part by a discrete set of
its points or samples. The result is called digital
representation or, more specifically, a digital image, for the
part.
• Contact based methods of reverse engineering (CMM,
Electromagnetic and Sonic digitizers) and
• Non-contact based methods of reverse engineering (3D Laser
scanners, 3D photogrammetry) are used for part digitizing.
• Contact based methods employ a pressure sensitive probe for
the scanning of surface points where as non-contact type
uses either optical based or ultrasonic.
Main components
• Probing unit provides the action(s)
necessary between the measuring
equipment and an area of the part
surface being digitized. The
action(s) could be either
mechanical contact, or non-contact
operations. Eg) Mechanical or
Trigger probe, Laser beam
• Detecting unit, such as a position
sensitive device (PSD) or a charge
coupled device (CCD), generates
related signals corresponding to
the range/depth information from
the measuring probe to the
probing area.
Main components
• Scanning unit enables one to
change the probing areas in the
required directions so that the
entire surface of the object could
be measured. Eg) x, y, z guiding
mechanism and their scaling
units,the mechanisms of the two
rotational axes of the probe head,
the servomotors, etc.
• Processing/control unit takes care
of the overall control of the
measuring system and transforms
the acquired range information to
3D data.
 Contact based scanning
techniques
• Most commonly the device is equipped with a touch trigger
probe or mechanical scanning probe.
• The following are some of the contact based scanning
equipment used for reverse engineering applications in
manufacturing.
• Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
• Electromagnetic digitizers
• Sonic digitizer
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
• A Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM) gives physical
representation of a three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system.
• The CMM measures the surface of
the object using a contact probe, a
highly sensitive pressure sensing
device that is activated by any
contact with an object.
• The linear distances from three
axes to the position of the probe
are ascertained, thus giving the x,
y, and z coordinates of the
surface.
 Digitizing using CMM
• A typical CMM measuring system
includes a CNC machine, a scanning
probe, 3-axis simultaneous motion
drivers and counters, and a
personal computer.
• The workpiece is positioned on top
of the XY stage.
• The scanning probe is mounted in
the vertical direction (Z stage) of
the CNC machine.
• The probe stylus picks up the signal
when contacted with the workpiece
and transfers it to the digital signal
processor and counter. Schematic diagram of a typical
measuring system.
 Digitizing using CMM
• Each of the three CNC stages can be moved simultaneously in the X, Y and
Z axes simultaneously.
• When the probe is traversed along the work piece surface, there exists a
settling time for signal pickup, which is influenced by the probe's contact
pressure.
• Based on the geometry of the object surface, the measured points usually
form irregular grids or meshes.
• In order to determine the surface normal along the surface under
inspection, these points need to be re-sampled or reassembled through an
interpolation scheme such as cubic splines or bilinear.

CMM scanning probe path

 Use of a CMM for RE
• Advantages:
• Very high accuracy, usually a few micrometers to several tens of
micrometers;
• Very large measurement range depending on the size of the CMM;
• Machine configuration often with 3 linear axes plus 2 rotational axes for
probing; and
• Universal and flexible measuring software support.
• Limitations:
• Low measuring speed especially with a touch trigger probe,
• Low degree of automation while measuring unknown features,
• Non direct surface measurement and probe radius compensation
required,
• Not suitable for measuring soft and fragile objects with touch trigger
probes, and
• High cost of CMM equipment.
 Electromagnetic digitizers

• Product to be digitized is placed on a table which encloses

electronic equipment and a magnetic field source.
• It creates a magnetic field in the volume of space above table.
• A hand held stylus is used to trace the surface of the part.
• This stylus houses a magnetic field sensor that in conjunction
with the electronic unit, detects the position and orientation
of the stylus.
• The data can be transferred to a computer through a serial
port.
 Sonic digitizers
• Sound waves are used to calculate the position of a point relative to
a reference point.
• In this technique, the object is placed in front of a vertical
rectangular board on the corners of which are mounted with four
microphone sensors.
• A free hand held stylus is used to trace the contours of the object.
• When a foot or a hand switch is pressed, the stylus emits an
ultrasonic impulse, and, simultaneously four clocks are activated.
• When the impulse is detected by a microphone, the corresponding
clock is stopped and the times taken to reach each of the
microphones recorded.
• These time recordings, called slant ranges, are processed by a
computer to calculate the x, y and z coordinates of the point.
Non-contact based scanning techniques -
Laser Scanning
• Technology designed for accurate geometric data acquisition is laser
scanning.
• Laser scanners, which utilize spot ranging techniques to acquire data,
provide the ability to quickly acquire large amounts of geometric data.
• These systems measure points on the part surface by computing the
position of a laser spot projected onto the surface of a part.
• The laser scanner casts a beam onto the object surface and then
inspects the reflected beam using a sensor that is placed coaxial to the
source.
Non-contact based scanning techniques -
Laser Scanning
 Non-contact based scanning techniques -
Laser Scanning
• The location of the source provides the
horizontal and vertical coordinates of the
illuminated point
• horizontal distance (a) between the source
and the sensor is known, and all three angles
of the triangle are known, the depth
measurement (or “b”) is easily obtained.
• the process outlined above provides the
depth coordinate, thus creating the three-
dimensional surface data.

By coordinating the motion of the laser source, a computerized scanning

algorithm may intelligently plot the laser about the object, exposing and
recording all portions of the object's surface.
 Laser Scanning
• The challenge remains in attempting to minimize shadowing effects that
occur as a result of concavities in the part and to provide part orientations
that optimize measurement.
• Once the scanning procedure is completed, the resulting data must be
analyzed to ensure its accuracy.
• The scanning technician performs this analysis manually, but algorithms
have been developed to facilitate this process.
• Upon assurance of accurate data, a triangulation procedure may be
performed to integrate the three-dimensional data structure by joining
the cross-sectional layers together.
• At this point, the file may be exported to many CAD data file types,
including STL format.
 Model Reconstruction
• In order to create a 3D model the
scanned-in point data from the physical
model has to be converted from point
to curve to surface to solid.
• This enables reproduction of individual
surface feature from point cloud data.
• A point cloud is a set of data points in
some coordinate system.
• In a three-dimensional coordinate
system, these points are usually defined
by X, Y, and Z coordinates, and often
intended to represent the external
surface of an object.
 Model Reconstruction
• After obtaining the product surface data as a set of points in
space, the next important step is the fitting of geometry to
this point data.
• Various methods are developed for the fitting of surfaces to
the point data.
• The surface can be mathematically described as either
algebraic or parametric surfaces.
• Algebraic surfaces are represented by a polynomial equation
of the type f(x, y, z) = 0, and usually represent infinite
surfaces.
• Parametric surfaces on the other hand, are finite surfaces
defined by certain basic functions and control points e.g.
Beizer surfaces, NURBS surfaces.
 Model Reconstruction
• Surface fitting techniques can be broadly classified in to two
categories;
• Interpolation techniques and
• Approximation techniques
• In interpolation technique, the surface to be fitted passes through
all the data points and is normally used when the data points are
accurately measured without any errors.
• In approximation technique, the surface need not to pass through
any of the data points, but represents a generalized average or a
best fit to the data points. This is usually used when there are a
large number of data points through which the surface has to be
fitted, or when the errors in the measurement are to be averaged
out.
• Software allows generation of high quality surface model with digitized
point cloud data which lets the user compare and modify CAD models
with point data, and speed up design iterations.
• Several types of diagnosis methods can be applied to ensure precision in
processing of points, curves and surface.
Three dimensional reconstruction
techniques rebuild a computer
model of the object that has been
reduced to slices by the imaging
method.
The advantage of a three-
dimensional reconstruction is that
a global view of the structure is
obtained, eliminating the need to
reconstruct the object from
multiple cross-sections by
inaccurate estimation.
(a & b) Cloud point views (c) Partially curve fitted
model (d) Fully curve fitted model (Toy car)
 CAD model preparation
• Additive manufacturing technologies are capable of producing
complex geometry prototypes as unattended operation provided a
CAD model of the object is available.

• Almost all the rapid prototyping systems accepts STL model as

input.

• To reliably produce a valid STL model, a non-ambiguous CAD solid

model is often needed.

• The model surface must uniquely distinguish between 'inside' and

the 'outside' of the object concerned.

• A solid model provides a complete, valid and unambiguous

representation for finite element analysis, and rapid prototyping.
 CAD model preparation
• A CAD surface model provides only geometric information.

• Surface representations are the main building blocks for solid

modeling and a solid model is built upon surface representations.

• CAD surfaces created through reverse engineering techniques,

often need to be further processed and converted into a solid
model for rapid prototyping.

• To convert a CAD surface model into a solid model, one often

needs to extend the CAD surfaces, find intersections between
surfaces, apply chamfering and fillets, and finally form a closed
solid model.

• Similar to surface modeling, there also exist a variety of schemes

for solid modeling.
GEOMETRIC MODELLING
 GEOMETRIC MODELLING
• During the process of geometric modelling the computer converts
various commands from the software into mathematical models,
• stores them as the files and
• finally displays them as the image.
• The geometric models created by the designer can be opened at
any time for reviewing, editing or analysis.
• “Computer compatible mathematical description” of the geometry
of the object is called as geometric modelling.
• CAD software allows the mathematical description of the object to
be displayed as the image on the screen of computer.
• Of the various forms of representing the objects in geometric
models, wire frames is the most basic .
 STEPS FOR CREATING GEOMETRIC MODEL

1) Creation of basic geometric objects:

• By using commands like points, lines, and circles

2) Transformations of the elements:

• By using transformation commands of the geometric elements

like scaling, translation etc.

3) Creation of the geometric model:

• Commands that cause integration of the objects or elements

of the geometric model to form the desired shape

• Merge, shell, loft, sweep

 Geometric Modeling Techniques

• There are three basic types of three-dimensional computer

geometric modeling methods:
• Wireframe modeling
– modeling the curves of the part.
• Surface modeling
– Model the surfaces of the part, but without knowledge of
material.
• Solid modeling
– full solid representation
 WIREFRAME MODELING
• Contains information about the
locations of all the points
(vertices) and edges in space
coordinates.
• Each vertex is defined by
x, y, z coordinate.
• Edges are defined by a pair of
vertices.
• Faces are defined as three or
more edges. • Entities used to generate
• Wireframe is a collection of model are classified as:
edges, • Analytical curves: line,
circle, hyperbola,
• there is no skin defining the parabola, Ellipse etc.
area between the edges. • Synthetic curves:
Hermite, Bezier, B-
spline, Rational
 WIREFRAME MODELING

• A cube can be generated with twelve edges generated from

eight vertices.
 WIREFRAME MODELING
• Advantages:
• Can quickly and efficiently convey information than multi-view drawings.
• The only lines seen are the intersections of surfaces.
• Can be used as input for CNC machines to generate simple parts.
• Contain most of the information needed to create surface, solid and
higher order models.
• Disadvantages:
• Do not represent an actual solids (no surface and volume).
• Cannot model complex curved surfaces.
• Cannot be used to calculate dynamic properties.
• Ambiguous views
 WIREFRAME MODELING

• Uniqueness problem
• Ambiguity problem
WIREFRAME MODELING
 WIREFRAME MODELING
• There are three types of wire frame geometric modeling:
• 2D: It stands of two dimensional view and is useful for flat objects.
• 2½D: It gives views beyond the 2D view and permits viewing of
object that has no sidewall details.
• Provides extruded depth to 2D model without any detailing on its
depth.
• 3D: The three dimension representation allows complete three-
dimensional viewing of the model with highly complex geometry.
WIREFRAME MODELING
 SURFACE MODELING
• A surface model represents the skin of an object, these skins have no
thickness or material type.
• These models define the surface features, as well as the edges of objects.
• A mathematical function describes the path of a curve (parametric
techniques).
• Surfaces are edited as single entities.
• External shape of object can be obtained with no information about
internal shape. E.g. sheet metal cover, car body exteriors.
• The basic sketching tools required for surface generation are :
• extruded surface
• revolved surface
• swept surface
• offset surface
 SURFACE MODELING

• A cube can be generated as surface model with six faces instead

of 12 edges.
 SURFACE MODELING

• ADVANTAGES:
• Eliminates ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in WFM
• Renders the model for better visualization and presentation
• Objects appear more realistic.
• Provides the surface geometry for CNC machining.
• Provides the geometry needed for mold and die design.
• Can be used to design and analyze complex free-formed surfaces (ship
hulls, airplane wings, car bodies, …).
• Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be
assigned and demonstrated.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Surface models provide no information about the inside of an object.
• Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces .
 SOLID MODELING
• Analysis, automation and integration is possible only with solid
models has properties such as weight, moment of inertia, mass.

• Solid model consist of geometric and topological data

• Geometry  shape, size, location of geometric elements

• Topology connectivity and associativity of geometric

elements
 SOLID MODELING
• ADVANTAGES:
• Has all the advantages of surface models (uniqueness, non-ambiguous,
realistic, surface profile) plus volumetric information.
• Allows the designer to create multiple options for a design.
• 2D standard drawings, assembly drawing and exploded views are
generated from the 3D model.
• Can easily be exported to different Finite Element Methods programs for
analysis.
• Can be used in new manufacturing techniques; CIM, CAM and DFM &
DFA
• Mass and volumetric properties of an object can be easily obtained; total
mass, mass center, area and mass moment of inertia, volume, radius of
gyration, …
• DISADVANTAGES:
• More intensive computation than wireframe and surface modeling.
• Requires more powerful computers (faster with more memory and good
graphics), not a problem any more.
 Methods of Creating Solid Models

1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
3. Sweeping
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeller to create a complex
surface or object by using Boolean operators to combine primitives
(cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones).

• Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually

complex, but is actually little more than cleverly combined or
decombined objects.

• CSG defines a model in terms of combining basic and generated

(using extrusion and sweeping operation) solid shapes.
BASIC PRIMITIVE SOLIDS
 BOOLEAN OPERATION

Subtract

Union Intersection
57
Solid Modeling Example Using CSG

Union

Plan your modeling strategy

before you start creating
the solid model
Cut

Cut
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

CSG objects can be

represented by binary
trees,
Where leaves represent
primitives, and nodes
represent operations.

In this figure, the nodes are labeled for intersection, for union, and - for
difference.
CSG DATA STRUCTURE (BINARY TREE)

60
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• ADVANTAGES:
• Easy to construct a solid model – minimum step.
• CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise database less storage.
– Complete history of model is retained and can be altered at any point.
• Can be converted to the corresponding boundary representation.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Only boolean operations are allowed in the modeling process  with
boolean operation alone, the range of shapes to be modeled is severely
restricted  not possible to construct unusual shape.
• Requires a great deal of computation to derive the information on the
boundary, faces and edges which is important for the interactive display/
manipulation of solid.
 Solid Modeling
Boundary Representation (B-rep)
• A solid model is formed by defining the surfaces that form its
boundary (edges and surfaces)

• The face of a B-rep represents an oriented surface, there are

two sides to the surface; solid side (inside) and void side
(outside), unlike faces in a wireframe.

• B-rep model is created using Euler operation.

• Many Finite Element Method (FEM) programs use this method.

Allows the interior meshing of the volume to be more easily
controlled.
A B-rep model of an object consists of faces, edges, vertices, loops, genes
(handle) and body.

• Vertex: A unique point

(ordered triplet) in space.
• Edge: A finite, non-self
intersecting space curve
bounded by two vertices
that are not necessarily
distinct.
• Face: Finite, connected,
non-self intersecting
region of a closed,
orientable surface
bounded by one or more
loops.
• Loop: An ordered alternating
sequence of vertices and edges.
A loop defines non-self
intersecting piecewise closed
space curve which may be a
boundary of a face.
• Loop is a hole in a face.
• Body: An independent solid.
Sometimes called a shell has a
set of faces that bound single
connected closed volume. A
minimum body is a point
(vortex) which topologically has
one face, one vortex and no
edges.
• A point is therefore called a
seminal or singular body.
• Genus: it is topological name
for the number of handles or
through holes in an object.

The total information present in a B-rep model is classified into

topological and geometrical data.
The topological part of the data provides the relationship among its
objects such as vertices, edges and faces similar to that used in
WFM.
Geometric information is usually equations of edges and faces.
 TYPES OF MODEL IN THIS SCHEME
a) Polyhedral solids:
• Polyhedral models consist of straight edges, e.g., a non-cylindrical surface:
box, wedge, combination of two or more non-cylindrical bodies, etc.
• Polyhedral solids can have blind or through holes, and two or three-
dimensional faces, with no dangling edges.
• A valid polyhedral abides by the Euler’s equation:
F – E + V – L = 2 (B-G)
• Where, F = Face ;E = Edge ; V = Vertices ; L = Inner Loop ; B = Bodies ; G =
Through holes
• A simple polyhedral has no holes; each face is bounded by a single set of
connected edges (bounded by one loop of edges).
• Euler’s equation for a simple polyhedral can be reduced to: F - E + V = 2
• Example: For the Cube, F = 6, E = 12, and V = 8
 TYPES OF MODEL IN THIS SCHEME
b) Curved solids:
• Similar to a polyhedral object but it has curved faces and edges.
• Spheres and cylinders are examples of curved solids.

F-E+V=2
 SWEEP REPRESENTATION
• In theory, moving (sweeping) any geometry (point, line, surface,
solid) through space along an arbitrary path defines new geometry.

• Most Solid Modelling Systems have a sweep capability. This can be

achieved through:
– Translation
– Rotation
of a 2D profile.

69
It needs the surface shape to be defined and the trajectory.
This will be used to create a CSG primitive and/or a B-Rep solid
within the system.

Translational

Rotational

70
71
SWEEP
CAD MODELLING – DATA FORMATS
 STL FORMAT
• Representation methods used to describe CAD geometry vary
from one system to another.

• A standard interface is needed to convey geometric

descriptions from various CAD packages to rapid prototyping
systems.

• The STL (STereoLithography) file, as the de facto standard, has

been used in many, if not all, AM systems.

• The STL file, conceived by the 3D Systems, USA, is created from

the CAD database via an interface on the CAD system.

• This file consists of an unordered list of triangular facets

representing the outside skin of an object.
 TWO FORMATS OF STL FILE
• ASCII format
• Binary format
• The size of the ASCII STL file is larger than that of the binary
format but is human readable.
• In a STL file, triangular facets are described by a set of X, Y
and Z coordinates for each of the three vertices and a unit
normal vector with X, Y and Z to indicate which side of facet
is an object.
 STL file format Specifications

1. Facet orientation
– The direction of the normal is outward.
– Vertices are listed CCW order when looking
at the object from outside.
Out
1

CCW 3
2

76
 STL file format Specifications

2. Vertex-to-vertex rule
– Each triangle must share two vertices with
each of the adjacent triangles.
– A vertex cannot lie on the side of another
triangle.

Correct Incorrect
77
 STL file format Specifications
3. STL files do not contain any scale info; the coordinates
are in arbitrary units.
4. Save as “.stl”, case insensitive.
5. Virtually every 3D modeling package provides an
interface for exporting into STL files.

Faceted approximation – tesselated object 78

Faceted approximation – tesselated object

79
SAMPLE ASCII STL FILE
 BINARY STL FORMAT
• An 80-byte ASCII header that can be used to describe the
part.
• A 4 byte unsigned long integer that indicates the number of
facets in the object.
• A list of facet records, each 50 bytes long.
• The facet record will be presented in the following way:
– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the normal vector
– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the first vertex
– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the second vertex
– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the third vertex
– One unsigned integer of 2 bytes, that should be zero, used for
checking
 ADVANTAGES OF STL FILE
• It provides a simple method of representing 3D CAD data.
• It is already a de facto standard and has been used by
most CAD systems and rapid prototyping systems.
• Finally, it can provide small and accurate files for data
transfer for certain shapes.
 DISADVANTAGES OF STL FILE
• The STL file is many times larger than
the original CAD data file for a given
accuracy parameter.
• The STL file carries much redundancy
information such as duplicate vertices
and edges.
• Geometry flaws exist in the STL file
because many commercial
tessellation algorithms used by CAD
vendor today are not robust. This
gives rise to the need for a “repair
software” which slows the production
cycle time.
 Finally, the subsequent slicing of large
STL files can take many hours.
 STL FILE PROBLEMS

(1) Gaps (cracks, holes, punctures) that is, missing facets.

(2) Degenerate facets (where all its edges are collinear).

(3) Overlapping facets.

(4) Non-manifold topology conditions

 MISSING FACETS
• Tessellation of surfaces
with large curvature can
result in errors at the
intersections between
such surfaces, leaving
gaps or holes along edges
of the part model.

• A surface intersection
anomaly which results in
a gap is shown in Figure.
 DEGENERATE FACES
• A geometrical degeneracy of a facet occurs when all of the
facets’ edges are collinear even though all its vertices are
distinct.
• This might be caused by stitching algorithms that attempt to
avoid shell punctures.
 OVERLAPPING FACETS
• Overlapping facets may be generated due to numerical
round-off errors occurring during tessellation.
• The vertices are represented in 3D space as floating
point numbers instead of integers. Thus the numerical
roundoff can cause facets to overlap if tolerances are set
too liberally.
 NON-MANIFOLD CONDITIONS

• There are three types of non-manifold conditions

(1) A non-manifold edge.

(2) A non-manifold point.

(3) A non-manifold face.

• These may be generated because tessellation of the fine
features are susceptible to round-off errors.
 NON-MANIFOLD EDGE
• Here, the non-manifold edge is actually shared by four
different facets.
• A valid model would be one whose facets have only an
adjacent facet each, that is, one edge is shared by two
facets only.
• Hence the non-manifold edges must be resolved such that
each facet has only one neighboring facet.

Dr. Sriram Venkatesh, Prof., MED, UCE, OU

Non-manifold point &
Non-manifold face
 CONSEQUENCES OF BUILDING A VALID AND INVALID
TESSELLATED MODEL
• A Valid Model : A tessellated model is said to be valid if there are no
missing facets, degenerate facets, overlapping facets or any other
abnormalities.

• When a valid tessellated model is used as an input, it will first be sliced

into 2D layers.
• Each layer would then be converted into unidirectional (or 1D) scan
lines for the laser or other RP techniques to commence building the
model.
An Invalid Model
 STL FILE REPAIR
• The STL file repair can be implemented using a generic solution and
dedicated solutions for special cases.

• Generic Solution: The basic approach of the algorithm to solve the

“missing facets” problem would be to detect and identify the
boundaries of all the gaps in the model.

• Once the boundaries of the gap are identified, suitable facets would
then be generated to repair and “patch up” these gaps.

• The size of the generated facets would be restricted by the gap’s

boundaries while the orientation of its normal would be controlled by
comparing it with the rest of the shell.
• This is to ensure that the generated facets’ orientation are correct and
consistent throughout the gap closure process.
• The orientation of the shell's facets can be obtained from the STL file
which lists its vertices in an ordered manner following Mobius’ rule.
 STL FILE REPAIR…
• The algorithm exploits this feature so that the repair carried out on the
invalid model, using suitably created facets, would have the correct
orientation.
• Thus, this generic algorithm can be said to have the ability to make an
inference from the information contained in the STL file so that the
following two conditions can be ensured:
– The orientation of the generated facet is correct and compatible
with the rest of the model.

– Any contoured surface of the model would be followed closely by

the generated facets due to the smaller facet generated. This is in
contrast to manual repair whereby, in order to save time, fewer
facets generated to close the gaps are desired, resulting in large
generated facets that do not follow closely to the contoured
surfaces.
 STL FILE REPAIR …
• Finally, the basis for the working of the algorithm is due to the
fact that in a valid tessellated model, there must only be two
facets sharing every edge.

• If this condition is not fulfilled, then this indicates that there are
some missing facets.

• With the detection and subsequent repair of these missing

facets, the problems associated with the invalid model can then
be eliminated.
 Other Translators
• Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) File

• Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language (HP/GL) File

• Computerized Tomography (CT) Data

 IGES File
• IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) is a standard used
to exchange graphics information between commercial CAD
systems.

• The IGES file can precisely represent CAD models. It includes not
only the geometry information (Parameter Data Section) but also
topological information (Directory Entry Section).

• In the IGES, surface modeling, constructive solid geometry (CSG)

and boundary representation (B-rep) are introduced.

• Especially, the ways of representing the regularized operations

for union, intersection, and difference have also been defined.
 Advantages of IGES File
• Wide adoption and comprehensive coverage.

• Since IGES was set up as American National Standard, virtually

every commercial CAD/CAM system has adopted IGES
implementations.

• Furthermore, it provides the entities of points, lines, arcs, splines,

NURBS surfaces and solid elements. Therefore, it can precisely
represent CAD model.

• Advantages of using IGES over current approximate methods

include precise geometry representations, few data conversions,
smaller data files and simpler control strategies.
 DISADVANTAGES
(1) Because IGES is the standard format to exchange data
between CAD systems, it also includes much redundant
information that is not needed for rapid prototyping systems.
(2) The algorithms for slicing an IGES file are more complex than
the algorithms slicing a STL file.
(3) The support structures needed in RP systems such as the SLA
cannot be created according to the IGES format.
 HP/GL File
• HP/GL (Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language) is a standard data
format for graphic plotters.

• Data types are all two-dimensional, including lines, circles, splines,

texts, etc.

• The approach, as seen from a designer’s point of view, would be

to automate a slicing routine which generates a section slice,
invoke the plotter routine to produce a plotter output file and
then loop back to repeat the process.
 ADVANTAGE OF HP/GL
• The advantages of the HP/GL format are that a lot of
commercial CAD systems have the interface to output the
HP/GL format and it is a 2D geometry data format which
does not need to be sliced.

DISADVANTAGES OF HP/GL
• First, because HP/GL is a 2D data format, the files would
not be appended, potentially leaving hundreds of small
files needing to be given logical names and then
transferred.
• Second, all the support structures required must be
generated in the CAD system and sliced in the same way.
 CT Data
• CT (Computerized Tomography) scan data is
a particular approach for medical imaging.

• This is not standardized data. Formats are

proprietary and somewhat unique from one
CT scan machine to another.

• The scan generates data as a grid of three-

dimensional points, where each point has a
varying shade of gray indicating the density
of the body tissue found at that particular
point.

• Data from CT scans have been used to build

skull, femur, knee, and other bone models on
Stereolithography systems.
 CT Data
• The CT data consist essentially of raster images of the
physical objects being imaged. It is used to produce
models of human temporal bones.

• There are three approaches to making models out of CT

scan information:
(1) Via CAD Systems
(2) STL-interfacing and
(3) Direct Interfacing.
 Advantage of CT Data
• The main advantage of using CT data as an interface of
rapid prototyping is that it is possible to produce
structures of the human body by the rapid prototyping
systems.

Disadvantage of CT Data
• Disadvantages of CT data include firstly, the increased
difficulty in dealing with image data as compared with
STL data and secondly, the need for a special
interpreter to process CT data.
 OTHER FORMATS

• SLC (StereoLithography Contour) file format

• CLI (Common Layer Interface) format
• RPI (Rapid Prototyping Interface) format
• LEAF (Layer Exchange ASCII Format)
• LMI (Layer Manufacturing Interface) format
 Stereolithography Contour Format (SLC)

• 2 ½ D contour representation of the SLC file format

model  1992 – 3D systems
• Translators are presently available  Much like SLI file
from only few CAD vendors  SLC file
 Header section
SLC
 3D reserved section
Layer CAD
STL
Solid CAD  Sample table section
 Contour data section

CSlice

SLI
106
Part Orientation and Support
Generation
 Part Orientation
• The Part orientation and support generation are very
important issues in additive manufacturing.
• The optimum orientation of the CAD model will,
• Reduce the part building time
• Reduce the cost of prototype
• Reduce the support material requirement and
• Reduce prototype building errors (eg. Staircase effect)
 Part Orientation
• Shortest dimension in the ‘z’ direction:
• Normally the RP machine allows the operator to rotate parts to a desired
position before slicing and building with consideration of height of the
part. If a part can be placed with the shortest dimension in the ‘z’
direction, it will require the minimum number of slices and therefore take
less time and effort in building.
• Shape of the part :
• It is usually effective to place larger cross sections near the bottom of the
build, so that overhangs do not have to be supported. If a large cross
section were to be placed on top of a significantly smaller one, the edges
of the top slice would sag due to lack of physical support.
 Part Orientation

• Curved surfaces:
• If it is practical concerning the number of slices, curves will be
smoother if placed in the cutting plane. Sometimes a trade-
off between curve accuracy and build layers can be achieved
by rotating the part at an angle.
 Support Generation
• The support requirements for prototype will differ based on
additive manufacturing technologies.
• The supports are normally generated as a separate CAD file
by the RP software like Bridgeworks.
• In general, supports are required,
• To give support to the hanging portions
• To separate part from the platform upon its completion
• To avoid collision between platform and other components
• To improve liquid flow in and around the part
111
 Support Structure Design
• The supports are normally generated as a separate CAD file by the RP
software like Bridgeworks.
• The structure should be designed such that its total weight is minimized.
• Three functional areas are:
• Sierras or Needles: connections between the main support and the part
(should be easily removable while providing sufficient support)
• Supports: the main support structure (should be strong enough to
withstand both the vertical weight and other horizontal disturbances).
• Separators: connections between the main support and the platform
(easy removal while providing a stable base support).
 Categories of Supports
Columns

Projected
Feature Edges
Gussets

Double Webs
Single Webs

1-Sep-22 116
 Model Slicing
• The part is • Need to consider:
mathematically – Slice axis vs. part
sectioned by the orientation
computer into series – Slice resolution
of parallel horizontal – Layer thickness
planes. • Cure depths
• linewidth
compensation
• Shrinkage
compensation
• Building time

121
 Model slicing
• Direct slicing generates precise • Adaptive slicing modifies the layer
contours for each layer from the thickness to take into account the
solid model and avoids an curvature of the surface of the
intermediate representation. solid model in the vertical
direction, to alleviate the staircase
• When producing prototype effect, and to decrease the
models with uniform layer number of layers.
thickness, there is no guarantee
that important features of an • The advantage of the adaptive
object, such as horizontal slicing is by varying layer thickness
features and other important the number of layers is minimized
feature points, are properly without compromising on height
reproduced. or quality of the part. And also it
reduces the build time and
support structures.

122
 Adaptive slicing

loss of surface quality because of parallel slicing

 angle slicing to reduce the stair stepping effect
 modification of the SL-machine (3 degrees of freedom)

Mathematical
Representation

SLA Layers

123
 Tool Path Generation
• After the slicing contour is prepared, the tool path planning is
carried out layer by layer, starting from bottom layer.
• Different toolpath categories:
• Raster scanning: It refers to the scanning along one axis. This is the
simple toolpath for layer by layer manufacturing. It is used in
processes such as Stereolithography (SL), Selective laser sintering
(SLS) and 3D printing processes for internal hatching.
• Perimeter scanning: Pattern makes contour scanning on external
surfaces. It is used in Laminated Object Manufacturing for paper
cutting. The internal scanning will be done by orthogonal scanning
on x and y axis.
Tool Path Generation
 Tool Path Generation
• Directional scanning: The pattern which scans internal sections at
various angles to an axis jointly with one perimeter scanning. This is
the basic style in 'Tri-Hatch' building style used on
Stereolithography machines of 3D Systems.
• Zigzag tool path: A zigzag tool path is for internal solidification with
a single perimeter for surface scanning. Used in processes like 3D
printing and Ballistic Particle Manufacturing.
• Contouring and spiral paths: Contouring and spiral tool paths can
also be used for certain geometries to improve mechanical
properties.
• Line by line scanning: Line by line scanning is often used in inkjet
type printing processes, such as ThermoJet 3D printer.