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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

▪ LESSON PROPER
A. Hypothesis Testing
1. Definition

● A generally considered most important instrument in research

● Its main function is to suggest new functions and ideas

● A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more
variables” (Kerlinger, 1956)
● Hypotheses are tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in
devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible” (Eric Rogers, 1966)
● “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship
between an independent and dependent variable” (Creswell, 1994)
● “A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated
conjecture. It provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under
investigation.” (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
● Generally considered as an assumption or supposition which must be proved
or disproved
● For a researcher, a hypothesis is a formal question that he has to resolve.
● A proposition or a set of propositions is set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specific group of phenomena.
● Research Hypothesis - A predictive statement capable of being tested by
scientific methods that relate an independent variable to some dependent
variable.

2. Characteristics of a Hypothesis
● Hypothesis should be clear and precise
● Hypothesis should be capable of being tested
● Hypothesis should be able to relate to a variable
● Hypothesis must be limited in scope and must be specific
● Hypothesis must be stated in very simple terms
● Hypothesis must be consistent with most known facts
● Hypothesis must be testable within a reasonable time
● Hypothesis must explain the facts which most need explaining

3. Categorizing Hypothesis
● It is a statement about the potential relationship between two or more
variables
● It is suggested to answer to a problem, an educated guess about the
population based on a study of a sample of the population
● Hypothesis testing deals with the procedure for testing the validity of
inferences regarding population parameters based on a study of the sample

4. Categories of Hypothesis
a. Null Hypothesis and Alternate Hypothesis – based on formulation
Null Hypothesis
• States the claim or assertion to be tested
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• It is always about a population parameter, not about a sample statistic

• Begin with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true
• This is like the notion of innocence until proven guilty
• States that the independent variable has no effect and there will be no
difference between the two groups
Alternate Hypothesis
● The opposite of the null hypothesis that challenges the status quo
● It is generally the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to prove and states
that the independent variable has an effect and there will be a difference
between the two groups

b. Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis - based on Direction

Directional

• If it uses so-called comparison terms, such as "greater", "less", "better", or

"worse"

• Predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups, and it
specifies how the two groups will differ

• One-tailed or directional test

• Done when the null hypothesis states that one mean is greater or
lesser than the other mean

• The direction is specified

• Example: Science majors differ from mass communication majors in

terms of mean scores on sociability

Non-directional

• If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference between two
groups

• It is non-directional because it predicts that there will be a difference but does

not specify how the groups will differ

• Two-tailed or non-directional test

• Done when the null hypothesis states that the two means are equal or
there is no difference between the two means

• Example: Boys and girls do not differ in mathematics ability

c. Inductive and Deductive Hypothesis - based on their derivation

● Inductive hypothesis results from a generalization based on observation
and deductive hypothesis is the opposite

5. Kinds of Hypothesis
a. Null Hypothesis (Ho)
● A statement of equality or no difference between the groups under study, or a
hypothesis of no effect
● Ex. Giving feedback does not improve learning
● Ex. The two groups do not differ in their response to the method of teaching
b. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
● A statement of the relationship between the variables that the researcher
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seeks to prove
● Ex. Giving feedback improves learning
● Ex. Experiential methods are more effective than lectures

6. Things to Remember
a. The alternative hypothesis is one which one wants to prove
b. The consideration is given to the null hypothesis.
c. Once the test has been carried out, the final conclusion is always given in terms
of the null hypothesis.
d. This does not necessarily mean that the null hypothesis is true, it only suggests
that there is insufficient evidence against Ho in favor of Ha.

7. Errors in Hypothesis Testing

a. Type I error
● occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when it is true, designated by
alpha (α)
● In a hypothesis test, a type 1 error occurs when the null hypothesis is
rejected when it is in fact true
● A type I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more
important to avoid, than a type II error
● "error of the first kind"

b. Type II error
● Occurs when we accept the null hypothesis when it is false, designated by (β)
● In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null hypothesis Ho, is not
rejected when it is in fact false.
● A type II error would occur if it was concluded that the two drugs produced
the same effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs, on
average, when in fact they produced different ones
● A type II error is frequently due to sample sizes being too small
● "error of the second kind"

8. Level of Significance
Alpha (α)
a. Is set at the beginning of the research
b. The level to which the researcher wishes to limit the probability of making a Type
I error
c. The area of the rejection region
d. Typical values are .05, .01, or .001
e. The significance level of a statistical hypothesis test is a fixed probability of
wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis H0, if it is in fact true
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f. It is the probability of a type I error and is set by the investigator in relation to the
consequences of such an error. That is, we want to make the significance level
as small as possible in order to protect the null hypothesis and to prevent,
as far as possible, the investigator from inadvertently making false claims.
g. The significance level is usually denoted by Significance Level = p (type 1 error)
h. Usually, the significance level is chosen to be 0.05 or 5%

9. One-sided Test
a. A statistical hypothesis in which the values for which we can reject the null
hypothesis, H0 are located entirely in one tail of the probability distribution
b. In other words, the critical region for a one-sided test is the set of values less
than the critical value of the test, or the set of values greater than the critical
value of the test
c. Also referred to as one-tailed test of significance
d. The choice between a one-sided and a two-sided test is determined by the
purpose of the investigation or prior reasons for using a one-sided test
e. Presumably, we would want to test the null hypothesis against the first
alternative hypothesis
f. Yet, another alternative hypothesis could be tested against the same null,
leading this time to a two-sided test

10. Two-sided Test

a. A statistical hypothesis test in which the values for which we can reject the null
hypothesis, H0 are located in both tails of the probability distribution
b. The critical region for a two-sided test is the set of values less than the first
critical value of the test and the set of values greater than the second critical
value of the test
c. Two-tailed test of significance
d. The choice between a one-sided test and a two-sided test is determined by the
purpose of the investigation or prior reasons for using a one-sided test

11. Steps in Hypothesis Testing

a. State the null hypothesis, H0, and the alternative hypothesis, H1
b. Choose the level of significance (α), and the sample size (n)
c. Determine the appropriate test statistic (two-tail, one tail, and Z or t distribution)
and sampling distribution
d. Determine the critical values (mainly three criteria, (i) significance level, (ii)
degree of freedom, (iii) one or two-tailed test, that divide the rejection and non-
rejection regions
e. Collect data and compute the value of the test statistic
f. If the computed value is greater than the tabular value, the null hypothesis is
rejected, otherwise it is accepted

12. The p-value

a. Is obtained from the hypothetical distribution of scores and probability associated
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with the critical value

b. This tells us the probability that the data would be at least inconsistent if the
assumption is that the hypothesis is true
c. Give a measurement of evidence against the null hypothesis
d. It does not give the level of significance as this is something that is done before
the experiment or testing the hypothesis is done
e. Goal: To reject the null hypothesis
f. If the p-value is less than the chosen significance level α, then the null
hypothesis is true

B. The Z-test
C. The T-test

▪ ACTIVITY/ EXERCISE/ ASSIGNMENT

Activity 1

Board exercises

▪ EQUIPMENT OR MATERIALS TO BE USED (for Face-to-face)

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

Excel

Calculator

▪ PRACTICAL EXERCISES (for Face-to-face)

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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Compute for the:

a. Mean

b. Median

c. Mode

d. Standard Deviation

e. True Rank

f. z-scores

g. T-scores

Temporary Rank Score True Rank _ _ 2 z-scores T-score

x-x (x-x)

1 3

2 3

3 4

4 5

5 5

6 6

7 6

8 6

9 6

10 6
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11 7

12 7

13 8

14 8

15 9

∑x =

Mean =

Median =

Mode =

sd =

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