Chapter-5: Transient Analysis (Giorgio Rizzoni)

Fall 2025
Course Instructor: Professor Miftahur Rahman, Ph.D.
Department of ECE, North South University
Office Room: SAC945
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Office Hours: SMTW 10:00-11:00 AM; Th 10:00-1:00 PM
Chapter-5: Transient Analysis
5.1 Transient Analysis
5.2 Writing Differential Equations for Circuits Containing
Inductors and Capacitors 179
5.3 DC Steady-State Solution of Circuits Containing
Inductors and Capacitors—Initial and Final Conditions 184
5.4 Transient Response of First-Order Circuits 190
5.5 Transient Response of Second-Order Circuits 209
5.1 Transient Analysis 178

The graphs of Figure 5.1 illustrate the result of the sudden

appearance of a voltage across a hypothetical load [a DC
voltage in Figure 5.1(a), an AC voltage in Figure 5.1(b)]. In the
figure, the source voltage is turned on at time t = 0.2 s. The
voltage waveforms of Figure 5.1 can be subdivided into three
regions: a steady-state region for 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.2 s; a transient region
for 0.2 ≤ t ≤ 2 s (approximately); and a new steady-state region
for t > 2 s, where the voltage reaches a steady DC or AC
condition.
The objective of transient analysis is to describe the behavior of
a voltage or a current during the transition between two distinct
steady-state conditions.
In this chapter we will study transient response of circuits
containing resistors, inductors, and capacitors. A general example
of the type of circuit that is discussed in this section is shown in
Figure 5.2. The switch indicates that we turn the battery power on
at time t = 0. Transient behavior may be expected whenever a
source of electrical energy is switched on or off, whether it be AC
or DC. A typical example of the transient response to a switched
DC voltage is what occurs when the ignition circuits in an
automobile are turned on, so that a 12-V battery is suddenly
connected to a large number of electric circuits.
The degree of complexity in transient analysis depends on the
number of energy storage elements in the circuit; the analysis can
become quite involved for high-order circuits. In this chapter, we
analyze only first- and second-order circuits, that is, circuits
containing one or two energy storage elements, respectively. In
electrical engineering practice, we typically resort to computer-
aided analysis for higher-order circuits.
A convenient starting point in approaching the transient response
of electric circuits is to consider the general model shown in Figure
5.3, where the circuits in the box consist of a combination of
resistors connected to a single energy storage element, either an
inductor or a capacitor.
RC Circuit:
We will consider an RC circuit to find the time-varying
currents and its effect in charging and discharging a
capacitor. The capacitor of capacitance C in Fig.1 is
initially uncharged. To charge it, we close the switch S on
point a. This completes an RC series circuit consisting of
the capacitor, an ideal battery of emf 𝜀
Fig. 1 (a) An RC circuit with a two-pole switch that can be
used to charge and discharge a capacitor. (b) The switch is
connected to a, the battery, the resistor, and the capacitor
make a series connection to charge the capacitor. (c) The
switch is connected to b, the battery is disconnected from
the circuit, current reverses and the capacitor starts
discharging.
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage rule in the charging of the capacitor, the
sum of the voltage drops across the capacitor
𝑞
(𝑉𝐶 = ) and the voltage drop across the resistor
𝐶
dq
VR = iR is zero. Furthermore, using i = and traversing
dt
through the circuit as shown in Fig. 1, we come up with the
following equation.
 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝜀 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑅 + = 𝑅 + (5.1)
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Rearranging Eqn. 5-1 and letting 𝑢 = 𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞, 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑞 and integrating both
sides of the equation we come up with the
𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
=𝑅
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞, 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑞
𝑢 𝑑𝑢
=𝑅 −
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡 𝑞
𝑑𝑢
− 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅𝐶 0 0 𝑢
𝑡 𝑞
− = 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 +𝐶
𝑅𝐶 0
𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞 𝑡
𝑙𝑛 =−
𝜀𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝜀𝐶 − 𝑞 = 𝜀𝐶𝑒
 𝑡
−
𝑞 = 𝜀𝐶 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 5.2

Eqn. (5.2) is the charging of a capacitor.

𝑑𝑞 𝜀 − 𝑡
𝑖= = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 (5.3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
As the charge on the capacitor increases, the current
decreases, as does the voltage difference across the
𝑡
−
resistor 𝑉𝑅 𝑡 = 𝜀𝑒 . The voltage difference across
𝑅𝐶

the capacitor increases as

𝑞 −
𝑡
𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = = 𝜀 1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝐶
This tells us that 𝑉𝐶 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 and that 𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀
when the capacitor becomes fully charged as t→∞.
Capacitive Time Constant: The product RC is called
the capacitive time constant of the circuit and is
represented with the symbol t:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 = 𝐶𝜀 1 − 𝑒 −1 = 0.63𝐶𝜀
Example Problem-5-1: Switch S in Fig. 3 is closed at time t = 0,
to begin charging an initially uncharged capacitor of capacitance
C = 15.0 μF through a resistor of resistance R = 20.0 Ω. At what
time is the potential across the capacitor equal to that across the
resistor?
Solution:
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑞 = 𝜀𝐶 1 − 𝑒

𝑑𝑞 𝜀 − 𝑡
𝑖= = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑞
𝑉𝐶 𝑡 =
𝐶 𝑡
= 𝜀 1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝜀 𝑒
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑡 𝑡
− −
𝜀 1−𝑒 𝑅𝐶 =𝜀 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
1 = 2𝑒 =0
𝑡
= 𝑙𝑛2
𝑅𝐶
𝑡 = 0.208 𝑅𝐶𝑚𝑠
Example Problem-5-2: A capacitor with initial charge 𝑞0 is discharged through
a resistor. What multiple of the time constant t gives the time the capacitor takes to
lose (a) the first one-third of its charge and (b) two-thirds of its charge?

Solution:
During discharging of a capacitor:
𝑡
−
a. 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏

𝑞0
𝑡 = 𝜏𝑙𝑛
𝑞
𝑞0
𝑡1 = 𝜏𝑙𝑛 𝑞0 = 1.099𝜏
3
3

b.
𝑞0
𝑡2 = 𝜏𝑙𝑛 = 𝜏𝑙𝑛 1.5 = 0.405𝜏
3 2𝑞0
3
RL Circuits:
If a constant emf is introduced into a single-loop circuit
containing a resistance R and an inductance L, the
𝜀
current rises to an equilibrium value of according to
𝑅

𝑡
𝜀 −
𝑖= 1−𝑒 𝜏𝐿 (rise of current).
𝑅
An RL circuit. When switch S is closed on a, the current
𝜀
rises and approaches a limiting value .
𝑅
𝑑 𝑁Φ𝐵 𝑑 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = 𝑉𝐿 = − =− = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The inductance of the inductor is defined in terms of
magnetic flux as
𝑁Φ𝐵 𝑇 − 𝑚2
𝐿=
𝑖 𝐴
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the following circuit, we
obtain
𝜀 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝜀 𝑖𝑅 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅
= − =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝑖 1
= 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 𝐿
Let 𝑢 = 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅, 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑅𝑑𝑖
𝑖 𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑅
=− 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑢 𝐿 0
𝑅𝑡
𝑙𝑛 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 − ln 𝜀 = −
𝐿
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 𝑅𝑡 𝑡
− −
= 𝑒 𝐿 = 𝑒 𝜏𝐿
𝜀
𝐿
where 𝜏𝐿 = is called inductive time constant.
𝑅
Rearranging we get,
𝑡
𝜀 −
𝑖= 1−𝑒 𝜏𝐿 rise of current.
𝑅
Taking derivative we get voltage drop across
the inductor,
𝑑𝑖 𝜀 −𝜏𝑡
= 𝑒 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝑖 𝜀 −𝜏𝑡
𝐿 = 𝑒 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑡
−
𝑉𝐿 = 𝜀𝑒 𝜏𝐿
EXAMPLE 5.1 Writing the Differential Equation of an RL Circuit
as shown in Figure 5.6.

Solution:
Given 𝑅1 = 10 Ω; 𝑅2 = 5 Ω; L 0.4 H
Find: The differential equation in 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 .
Analysis: Apply KCL at the top node (node analysis) to write the circuit
equation. Note that the top node voltage is the inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 .
 𝑖𝑅1 − 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖𝑅2 = 0
𝑣𝑆 − 𝑣𝐿 𝑣𝐿
− 𝑖𝐿 − =0
𝑅1 𝑅2
Next, use the definition of inductor voltage to eliminate the variable
𝑣𝐿 from the nodal equation
𝑣𝑆 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
− − 𝑖𝐿 − =0
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
+ 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐿(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
Substituting numerical values, we obtain the following differential
equation:
𝑑𝑖𝐿
+ 8.33𝑖𝐿 = 0.833𝑣𝑆
𝑑𝑡

We can generalize the results presented in the preceding pages by observing that any
circuit containing a single energy storage element can be described by a differential
equation of the form
𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑓 𝑡 5.7
𝑑𝑡

where x(t) represents the capacitor voltage in the circuit of Figure 5.5 and the inductor
current in the circuit of Figure 5.6, and where the constants a0, a1, and b0 consist of
combinations of circuit element parameters. Equation 5.7 is a first-order linear
ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients.
 𝑎1 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑏0
+𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑎0 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0
or

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝜏 + 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑓 𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡

𝑎1 𝑏0
where the constants 𝜏 = and 𝐾𝑆 = are termed the time
𝑎0 𝑎0
constant and the DC gain, respectively. We shall return to this
form when we derive the complete solution to this first-order
differential equation.
Consider now a circuit that contains two energy storage elements, such
as that shown in Figure 5.7. Application of KVL results in the following
equation:
 𝑑𝑖 𝑡 1 𝑡
−𝑅𝑖 𝑡 − 𝐿 − 𝑖 𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 0 (5.9)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞
Equation 5.9 is called an integrodifferential equation, because it contains both
an integral and a derivative. This equation can be converted to a differential
equation by differentiating both sides, to obtain

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)

𝑅 +𝐿 2
+ 𝑖 𝑡 = (5.10)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

or, equivalently, by observing that the current flowing in the series circuit is
𝑑𝑣𝐶
related to the capacitor voltage by 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 , and that equation 5.9 can be
𝑑𝑡
rewritten as
 𝑑𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 2
+ 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 (5.11)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Note that although different variables appear in the preceding differential

equations, both equations 5.10 and 5.11 can be rearranged to appear in the
same general form, as follows:

𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑎2 2
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑡 (5.12)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where the general variable x(t) represents either the series current of the
circuit of Figure 5.7 or the capacitor voltage. By analogy with equation
5.8,we call equation 5.12 a second-order linear ordinary differential
equation with constant coefficients. Equation 5.12 can be rewritten as

𝑎2 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎1 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑏0
2
+ +𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑎0 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0
1 𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 2𝜁 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
2 2
+ + 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑆 𝑓 𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝑡

𝑎0 𝑎1 1 𝑏0
𝜔𝑛 = ,𝜁 = 2 , and 𝐾𝑆 = , are termed the natural
𝑎2 𝑎0 𝑎2 𝑎0
frequency, the damping ratio, and the DC gain, respectively. We shall
return to this form when we derive the complete solution to this second-order
differential equation.

Computer aids are often employed to solve differential equations of higher

order; some of these software packages are specifically targeted at the
solution of the equations that result from the analysis of electric circuits (e.g.,
Electronics WorkbenchTM).
EXAMPLE 5.2 Writing the Differential Equation of an RLC Circuit

Problem
Derive the differential equation of the circuit shown in Figure 5.8.
Solution
Known Quantities: R1 = 10 k; R2 = 50 ; L = 10 mH; C = 0.1 μF.
Find: The differential equation in 𝑖𝐿 (t).

Analysis: Apply KCL at the top node (node analysis) to write the first circuit
equation. Note that the top node voltage is the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝑐 .

𝑣𝑆 − 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝐶
−𝐶 − 𝑖𝐿 = 0
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
Now, we need a second equation to complete the description of the circuit, since the
circuit contains two energy storage elements (second-order circuit). We can obtain
a second equation in the capacitor voltage vC by applying KVL to the mesh on the
right-hand side:
𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐶 − 𝐿 − 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐶 = 𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Next, we can substitute the above expression for 𝑣𝐶 into the first equation, to
obtain a second-order differential equation, shown below.
𝑣𝑆 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑅2 𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝐿
− − 𝑖𝐿 − 𝐶 𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖𝐿 = 0
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Rearranging the equation, we can obtain the standard form similar to that of
equation 5.12

𝑑2 𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑅1 𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑣𝑆
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Comments: Note that we could have derived an analogous equation by using

the capacitor voltage as an independent variable; either energy storage variable
is an acceptable choice. You might wish to try obtaining a second-order
equation in 𝑣𝐶 as an exercise. In this case, you would want to substitute an
expression for 𝑖𝐿 in the first equation into the second equation in 𝑣𝐶 .