Learning: Perspectives and There is another category of behavior commonly known as ‘biological instincts’.

Approaches
e.g.: a child start crying when s/he feels hungry, we feel like resting when tired,
we are attracted towards opposite sex, etc. Such behavior is natural and not
learned; therefore we do not call it learned behavior.

Sometimes, modifications or change in behavior takes place due to accidents or

psychological defects, for example, limping of a person after an accident or
stammering in speech due to some defect in tongue. We again exclude such
behavior from the category of learned behaviour. Similarly, there are some motor
actions which a child can perform only at a certain age. For instance, to sit in a
proper posture, to walk with steady steps, etc., are attained after a specific age.
The behavior which is the outcome of maturity of the child, is not called learned
behavior. However, in most of such cases, maturity and learning both play their
role simultaneously and therefore, it becomes difficult to determine which of the
two is responsible for the behavior.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Answer the following questions and write your answer in the
space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of unit.
1) “Learning is the development that comes from exercise and effort”.
Explain.
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2) What is not learning?
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1.4 NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. It provides a key to the
structure of our personality and behaviour. Experience, direct or indirect, plays a
very important and dominating role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of
the individual from the very beginning. When a child touches a hot pan and gets
burnt, s/he immediately withdraws her/his hand and learns to touch such vessels
carefully. S/he concludes that if one touches a hot vessel, one gets burnt. In the
same way from other experiences, in her/his day to day life, s/he derives different
conclusions and modifies her/his behaviour. These changes in behaviour brought
about by experience are commonly known as learning and this process of gaining
experiences, drawing conclusions, and changing behaviour goes on from womb
to tomb.
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This discussion and the definitions given in the first section‘What is learning?’ Understanding Learning
of this unit, reveals the nature of learning as follows:
• Learning is a process and not a product: Learning is a fundamental and
life-long process. Attitudes, fears, gestures, motor skills, language skills,
etc. are the products of learning. They are not learning themselves.
In a classroom, when learning is viewed as a product then it is viewed as
something external. Something like shopping– people go out and buy
knowledge and then it becomes their possession. Paulo Freire in his book
‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’ criticizes this and says that education thus
becomes an act of depositing, in which the students are the depositories and
the teacher is the depositor. In this ‘banking’concept of education, the teacher
is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
Whereas, when learning is viewed as a process, it is viewed as something
internal or personal. It is something that a child does in order to understand
the real world and uses it as a tool for survival.
• Learning is purposive or goal directed: Learning is not an aimless activity.
All true learning is based on purpose. We do not learn anything and everything
that comes in our way in a haphazard manner. However, some experts argue
that sometimes learning is unintended.
• Learning generally involves some degree of permanence:Activities
bringing temporary change in behaviour and not lasting do not come under
learning. For example, cramming the content matter by a learner for
examination and forgetting it after sometime does not bring any change (to
some extent to permanence) in the total behaviour pattern of the learner and
thus this type of learning cannot be said as true learning.
• Learning is universal and continuous: Every creature till it lives, learns.
In human beings it is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture.
It is a continuous never-ending process which starts from birth and continues
till death.
• Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust
herself/himself adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary
to the new situations. We meet with new situations which demand solutions.
Repeated efforts are required react to them effectively. These experiences
leave behind some effects in the mental structure and modify our behaviour.
• Learning is comprehensive:The scope of learning is spread over each and
every dimension of life. It is a very comprehensive process which covers all
domains – Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor- of human behaviour.
• Learning is change in response or behaviour may be favourable or
unfavourable: Learning leads to changes in behavior but this does not
necessarily mean that these changes always bring about improvement or
positive development. There are chances to drift to the negative side too.
• Learning is organizing experience:Learning involves all those experience
and training of an individual (right from birth) which help her/him to produce
changes in behaviour. It is not mere addition to knowledge or mere acquisition
of facts. It is the reorganization of experience which may also include
unlearning. 11
Learning: Perspectives and • Instincts and reflexes are not learning: Changes in behaviour on the basis
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of native response tendencies like instincts and reflexes (e.g. infant’s sucking
behaviour, blinking at bright lights)cannot be attributed to learning.
• Learning does not include changes in behaviour on account of maturation,
fatigue, illness, or drug etc.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Answer the following question and write your answer in the
space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of unit.
3) Whether learning is a process or a product?
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1.5 LEARNING AND RELATED CONCEPTS

1.5.1 Learning and Maturation
According to Hurlock (1942), maturation is the unfolding of characteristics
potentially present in the individual that come from the individual’s genetic
endowment, while, learning is development that comes from exercise and effort.
Biggie and Hunt (1968) defined maturation as a developmental process within
which a person, from time to time, manifests different traits, the ‘blue-prints’ of
which have been carried in his cells from the time of his conception.
Thus, maturation is a natural process and it involves changes that are associated
with normal growth. These changes are independent of activity, practice or
experience. The resultant behaviour, thus, or account of the process of maturation
does not fall in the category of acquired or learned behaviour. However, maturation
is closely linked with results of learning and with the process of development.
Before certain kinds of learning may take place, one has to have achieved a
certain level of maturation. Infact, learning and maturation are so closely
interrelated that sometimes it becomes difficult to say definitely, particularly in
human beings, as to which of the behavioural changes the results of learning are
and which the consequences of maturation are. Aggarwal (2008) has discussed it
as follows,
“The swimming of tadpoles and the flying of birds can be attributed primarily to
maturation. But in the case of human beings it is not easy to decide whether the
activities result from maturation or learning. The simplest example is that of a
child. The child learns to talk only when he reaches a certain stage or age of
maturation. It is also equally true that he does not learn the language just because
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he attains that age. The language is taught to him. The language which he learns
is that which he hears. It is very clear that the two processes- maturation and Understanding Learning
learning – are closely related to each other. Maturation assists in the process of
learning. Learning takes place only if the stage for that type of learning has
been achieved through a process of maturation. A teacher would be effective if
he understands the complexity of the changes that take place as a result of both
processes and the interaction between the two. The reverse would be harmful.
For instance, the normal development of speech in the child would be disrupted
if a child is forced to learn certain speech patterns before a certain maturation
has occurred. On the other hand, failure to provide specific training in speech at
the appropriate time may be a great educational error.”

1.5.2 Learning and Teaching

Teaching is a system of actions which induce learning through interpersonal
relationships. It is a purposeful social and professional activity. The ultimate
goal of teaching is to bring about development of a child.

Teaching is a complex phenomenon as its nature is scientific as well as artistic.

Gage (1979) has discussed teaching as a science to describe ‘the elements of
predictability’ in teaching and as an art to describe ‘what constitutes good
teaching’. When we consider teaching as an art, we consider it loaded with
emotions, feelings, values, beliefs and excitement and difficult to derive rules,
principles or generalizations. When we consider teaching as science, then
pedagogy is predictable to the extent that it can be observed and measured with
some accuracy and research can be applied to the practice of teaching.

The total task of teaching is to provide a conducive environment to child for

learning and helping him in exploring his potential. That is why, Joyce, Weil and
Calhoun (2009) say that models of teaching are really models of learning. As we
help learners in acquiring information, ideas, skills values, ways of thinking,
and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. In
fact, the most important long term outcome of teaching may be the learners’
increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future.

‘Any valid conception of teaching must be integrally related to a conception of

learning. How human beings learn should provide much of the basis for our
derivations of how teachers should teach’ (Gage, 1967).

1.5.3 Learning and Imprinting

‘Imprinting’ as a term was first used in 1930s by the Austrian Ethologist Konrad
Lorenz for describing the attachment behaviour of new born-birds to the first
large moving objects in their environment. He conducted a series of experiments
for studying such attachment behaviour. Like, in his initial experiments he
demonstrated that ducklings and goslings follow the mother soon after hatching.
Afterwards, Lorenz replaced the mother by a big object like football and found
the new-borns following the new object.
In one of his later experiments he himself worked as a substitute for the object
and the mother. He first hatched a group of goslings in an incubator and then
presented himself as the first moving object they saw. He found that the new-
born birds began to follow him wherever he went. Thus he concluded that
imprinting represents an inborn perceptual process independent of any training
or experience. It is a sense of strong connection or attachment that is made between
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Learning: Perspectives and the new-born organism and the first object it may have initially responded to.
Approaches
This attachment behavior is a species-specific behaviour and is not exhibited by
all species.

Imprinting is quite dissimilar and distinct from the actual process of learning. It
depends on an instinctive and inborn species-specific behaviour mechanism rather
than the experience and training carried out during specific critical periods of
the species life time soon after birth.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of unit.
4) Give an example of maturation.
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5) What do you understand by the term imprinting?
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1.6 DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING*

According to Marzanoet al. (2006) dimensions of learning is a comprehensive
model that uses what researchers and theorists know about learning to define the
learning process. Their premise is that five types of thinking – i.e. five dimensions of
learning- are essential to successful learning. These five dimensions of learning are:
a) Attitudes and Perceptions
b) Acquire and Integrate Knowledge
c) Extend and Refine Knowledge
d) Use Knowledge Meaningfully
e) Habits of Mind
a) Attitudes and Perceptions
A key element of effective teaching is helping learners to establish positive
attitudes and perceptions about the classroom and about learning because
these affect learners’ abilities to learn.
*The content under this section is broadly based on the 2nd edition of ‘Dimensions of Learning-
14 Teacher’s manual’ by Marzano et al. (2006)
 If learners find the classroom as an unsafe and disorderly place, their learning Understanding Learning
will be negatively affected. Also, learners’ positive attitude about classroom
tasks helps in learning.

b) Acquire and Integrate Knowledge

Providing new knowledge by integrating the previous knowledge helps in
learning. When learners are learning new information, they must be guided
in relating the new knowledge to what they already know, organizing that
information, and then making it part of their long-term memory.

c) Extend and Refine Knowledge

Learning does not stop with acquiring and integrating knowledge. Learners
develop an in-depth understanding through the process of extending and
refining their knowledge (e.g. by making new distinctions, clearing up
misconceptions, and reaching conclusions). Various reasoning processes,
like: comparing, classifying, abstracting, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning, constructing support, analyzing errors, analyzing perspectives,
etc. are used by learners to analyze for extending and refining their knowledge.

d) Use Knowledge Meaningfully

The most effective learning occurs when we use knowledge to perform
meaningful tasks. So, making sure that learners have the opportunity to use
knowledge meaningfully is one of the most important parts of planning a
teaching activity. For this, reasoning processes, like: decision making,
problem solving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, systems
analysis, etc. may be used.

e) Habits of Mind
A learner becomes an effective learner by developing powerful habits of
mind that enable her/him to think critically, do thing creatively, and regulate
her/his behaviour. The mental habits for critical thinking are being accurate
and seeking accuracy, being clear and seeking clarity, maintaining an open
mind, restraining impulsivity, taking a position when the situation warrantsit
and responding appropriately to others feeling and level of knowledge.

Habit of preserving, pushing the limits of own knowledge and abilities,

generating, trusting and maintaining own standards of evaluation enable in
thinking creatively. Self-regulated thinking is enabled by the habits of
monitoring own thinking, planning appropriately, identifying and using
necessary resources, responding appropriately to feedback and evaluating
the effectiveness of own actions.

These five dimensions of learning do not operate in isolation but work

together. All learning takes place against the back drop of learners’ attitudes
and perceptions and their use of productive habits of minds. Having positive
attitudes and perceptions and using productive habits of mind makes learning
easier and helps in learning more. When positive attitudes and perceptions
are in place and productive habits of mind are being used, learners can more
effectively do the thinking required in the other three dimensions- that is,
acquiring and integrating knowledge, extending and refining knowledge,
and using knowledge meaningfully.
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