📘 Unit 2: Cell Structure (iGCSE Biology A* Notes)

🔑 Cell Theory Basics

 Cell = basic structural and functional unit of life.
 All organisms are made of cells.
 Cells come from pre-existing cells.

🔬 Cell Structures & Functions

Animal Cell

 Cell membrane → partially permeable; controls movement of substances in/out.

 Cytoplasm → site of chemical reactions; contains enzymes.
 Nucleus → contains DNA (genetic material) and controls cell activities.
 Mitochondria → site of aerobic respiration, releases ATP (energy).
 Ribosomes → site of protein synthesis.

Plant Cell (includes all above plus)

 Cell wall → made of cellulose; provides support and protection; fully permeable.
 Chloroplasts → contain chlorophyll; site of photosynthesis.
 Permanent vacuole → filled with cell sap; maintains water potential and turgidity.
🌟
Extra Structures (advanced syllabus)
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER → ribosomes attached; protein synthesis & transport.
o Smooth ER → lipid synthesis & transport.
 Golgi apparatus: modifies and packages proteins.
 Vesicles: transport substances in/out of cell.
 Lysosomes: contain enzymes to digest worn-out organelles or pathogens

🟩 Plant vs Animal Cell (Examiner-friendly)

Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell wall ✅ (cellulose) ❌
Chloroplasts ✅ ❌
Vacuole Large, permanent Small/temporary (if present)
Shape Fixed, regular Flexible, irregular
Glycogen storage ❌ (starch instead) ✅ (glycogen)

🌱 Cell Specialisation & Organisation

  Specialised cells → adapted for specific functions (RBC, root hair, sperm, etc).
 Tissue → group of similar cells performing same function.
 Organ → different tissues working together.
 Organ system → group of organs with related functions.
 Organism → living thing made of organ systems.

🔬 Microscopy (required knowledge)

 Light microscope → magnification ×1500; can see cells and nucleus but not detail of
organelles.
 Electron microscope → magnification ×1,000,000; can see detailed organelles
(mitochondria, ER, ribosomes).
 Magnification formula:

Magnification=Image sizeActual size\text{Magnification} = \frac{\text{Image size}}{\

text{Actual size}}Magnification=Actual sizeImage size

 Unit conversions:
o 1 mm = 1000 µm = 1000,000 nm

⚠️Common Examiner Traps

 🚫 Saying “cell wall is for controlling what enters/exits” → ❌ that’s the cell membrane’s
role.
 🚫 Saying “nucleus makes energy” → ❌ energy is from mitochondria.
 🚫 Forgetting that ribosomes have no membrane.
 🚫 Mixing up vacuoles (large & permanent in plants vs tiny/absent in animals).
 🚫 Writing “cell wall is alive” → ❌ it is non-living.

🌟 High-Achiever Tips
 Always use keywords: “site of,” “contains,” “made of cellulose,” “partially permeable.”
 When asked differences between plant and animal cells, give at least 3 differences to
secure full marks.
 Learn organelle → function as a table for quick recall.
 If asked about electron vs light microscope, always mention higher magnification AND
resolution for electron microscope.

🦠 Bacterial Cell Structure (Prokaryotic Cell)

🔑 Key Features

 Prokaryotic → no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles.

 Much smaller than plant/animal cells (1–5 µm).

🔬 Structures & Functions

 Cell wall → made of peptidoglycan (not cellulose); gives shape and protection.
 Cell membrane → controls entry/exit of substances.
 Cytoplasm → site of chemical reactions.
 Circular DNA (nucleoid) → single loop of DNA; not inside a nucleus.
 Plasmids → small extra DNA loops; carry useful genes (e.g. antibiotic resistance).
 Ribosomes (70S, smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes) → site of protein synthesis.
 Flagellum (some bacteria) → movement.
 Capsule/slime layer (some bacteria) → protection from drying out / immune system.

🟩 Comparison Table: Bacteria vs Plant vs Animal Cells

Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell
Nucleus ✅ ✅ ❌ (DNA free in cytoplasm)
Cell wall ❌ ✅ (cellulose) ✅ (peptidoglycan)
Chloroplasts ❌ ✅ ❌
Vacuole Small/temporary Large, permanent ❌
Mitochondria ✅ ✅ ❌
Ribosomes ✅ (80S) ✅ (80S) ✅ (70S, smaller)
Often variable (rod, spiral,
Shape Irregular Regular (boxy)
spherical)
Linear, inside Circular, free in cytoplasm +
DNA Linear, inside nucleus
nucleus plasmids
Size ~20–30 µm ~40–100 µm ~1–5 µm

⚠️Common Examiner Traps

 🚫 Saying bacteria have a “nucleus” → ❌ they don’t (prokaryotic).
 🚫 Saying bacterial cell wall is cellulose → ❌ it’s peptidoglycan.
 🚫 Forgetting plasmids → examiners expect you to mention them for bacteria.
 🚫 Confusing ribosome sizes → bacteria = smaller (70S).
 🚫 Writing “mitochondria produce energy” in bacteria → ❌ they don’t have mitochondria;
respiration occurs in cytoplasm or on cell membrane.

🌟 High-Achiever Tips
 Use the term “prokaryotic” vs “eukaryotic” — examiners reward that.
 Always mention plasmids (especially for extra marks).
 Learn one example of bacterial use:
o E. coli in genetic engineering.
o Lactobacillus in yogurt production.
  If asked about differences, aim for at least 3 clear ones (nucleus, wall type, organelles).

🧬 Viruses (not cells, non-living)

🔑 Key Features

 Acellular → not made of cells, no cytoplasm, no organelles.

 Non-living outside host → can only reproduce inside living cells.
 Size → much smaller than bacteria (~20–300 nm).

🔬 Structure

 Genetic material (DNA or RNA) → carries instructions for replication.

 Protein coat (capsid) → protects genetic material.
 Envelope (some viruses) → outer lipid layer for entry into host cell.
 Surface proteins (spikes) → attach to specific host cells.

🦠 Examples

 HIV (AIDS virus) → RNA virus, attacks lymphocytes.

 Influenza → RNA virus, infects respiratory system.
 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) → RNA virus, infects plants.

🟩 Comparison: Virus vs Bacterial Cell vs Animal/Plant Cell

Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell Virus
Nucleus ✅ ✅ ❌ ❌
Cell wall ❌ ✅ (cellulose) ✅ (peptidoglycan) ❌
Cytoplasm ✅ ✅ ✅ ❌
Organelles ✅ ✅ ❌ ❌
Ribosomes ✅ (80S) ✅ (80S) ✅ (70S) ❌
Circular in cytoplasm +
DNA Linear, in nucleus Linear, in nucleus DNA or RNA
plasmids
Cell division Only inside host
Reproduction Cell division Binary fission
(mitosis/meiosis) cell
❌ (non-living
Living? ✅ ✅ ✅
outside host)
Size 20–30 µm 40–100 µm 1–5 µm 20–300 nm
⚠️Common Examiner Traps
 🚫 Writing “viruses are cells” → ❌ they are not cells.
 🚫 Saying “viruses have both DNA and RNA” → ❌ they have one type only.
 🚫 Forgetting that viruses cannot reproduce alone — need host cell machinery.
 🚫 Confusing virus “envelope” with “cell wall.”

🌟 High-Achiever Tips
  Always use the phrase “not living, acellular”.
 For comparisons: viruses are much smaller + no cytoplasm/organelles.
 Mention specific examples (HIV, Influenza, TMV) if asked for applications.
 If asked about reproduction: write “inside host cell using host’s machinery”, not just
“multiply.”

🔄 Cell Division (Unit 2)

1️.Mitosis
Definition: Nuclear division producing two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.

🔬 Key Features

 Used for: growth, repair, replacement of cells, asexual reproduction.

 Daughter cells are diploid (2n) and identical to parent cell.
 Occurs in somatic (body) cells.

🔄 Stages (examiner summary)

 Interphase → DNA replication, cell growth, organelles double.

 Prophase → chromosomes condense, spindle forms, nuclear membrane breaks down.
 Metaphase → chromosomes line up on equator, spindle attaches to centromeres.
 Anaphase → sister chromatids separate, pulled to opposite poles.
 Telophase → new nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes.
 Cytokinesis → cytoplasm divides → 2 identical diploid cells.

2️.Meiosis
Definition: Nuclear division producing four genetically different haploid cells.

🔬 Key Features

 Used for: gamete production (sperm & egg, pollen & ovules).
 Daughter cells are haploid (n) → half chromosome number.
 Involves two divisions:
o 1st division → homologous chromosomes separate.
o 2nd division → chromatids separate.
 Introduces genetic variation through:
o Independent assortment (chromosomes line up randomly).
o Crossing over (exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes).
3️.Comparison: Mitosis vs Meiosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
No. of divisions 1 2
No. of daughter cells 2 4
Genetic identity Identical Genetically different
Chromosome number Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)

Growth, repair, asexual

Role Sexual reproduction (gametes)
reproduction
Yes (independent assortment + crossing
Variation? No
over)

⚠️Common Examiner Traps

 🚫 Saying “mitosis makes new cells for reproduction” → ❌ that’s meiosis (gametes).
 🚫 Forgetting chromosome number:
o Mitosis → diploid (2n).
o Meiosis → haploid (n).
 🚫 Writing “meiosis makes identical gametes” → ❌ gametes are genetically different.
 🚫 Confusing chromatids vs chromosomes (sister chromatids separate in mitosis anaphase,
but homologous chromosomes separate first in meiosis).
 🚫 Not mentioning variation in meiosis → high-value mark lost.

🌟
High-Achiever Tips
 Use phrases like:
o “Genetically identical” (for mitosis).
o “Genetically different due to crossing over and independent assortment” (for meiosis).
 Diagrams: know how to sketch simple mitosis and meiosis stages (not overly detailed, just
chromosomes splitting).
 In exam answers, always link the type of division to its function (e.g. “meiosis produces
haploid gametes for fertilisation”).
 If the question asks “why variation is important” → say “increases chance of survival in
changing environment (natural selection)”.

📘 Unit 2: Cell Structure – A* Master Sheet

🔬 Organelles & Cell Types

Function (examiner ⚠️Common Mistakes &
Organelle / Cell ✅ Tips for A*
keywords) Traps
❌ Writing “controls what
Partially permeable;
Always say “partially/selectively enters/leaves” without
Cell membrane controls entry/exit of
permeable” “partially permeable” (too
substances
vague).
 Function (examiner ⚠️Common Mistakes &
Organelle / Cell ✅ Tips for A*
keywords) Traps
Made of cellulose; ❌ Writing “controls
Use phrase “non-living, fully
Cell wall (plant) supports and protects; entry/exit” → that’s the
permeable, made of cellulose”
fully permeable membrane, not wall.

Site of chemical
Link to “enzymes for metabolic ❌ Just saying “jelly” or
Cytoplasm reactions; contains
reactions” “fills the cell.”
enzymes
❌ Saying “nucleus makes
Contains DNA, Always mention
Nucleus energy.” Energy =
controls cell activities DNA/genes/chromosomes
mitochondria.
Site of aerobic
Use “site of aerobic respiration ❌ Writing “produces
Mitochondria respiration, releases
→ energy (ATP) released” energy” → imprecise.
ATP

Site of protein ❌ Confusing with RER or

Ribosomes Keep it short: “protein synthesis”
synthesis nucleus.

Photosynthesis;
Chloroplast Always say “contains ❌ Just saying “it makes
chlorophyll absorbs
(plant) chlorophyll” food.”
light

Filled with cell sap;

Use “permanent, large vacuole in ❌ Saying animals have
Vacuole (plant) maintains turgidity &
plants” same permanent vacuole.
water potential

Transports
water/minerals; Use “lignin → strengthens, ❌ Saying “carries food”
Xylem vessel
lignified walls support waterproof” (that’s phloem).
plant
Transports Say “bidirectional transport” if ❌ Writing “transports
Phloem
sucrose/amino acids relevant water.”
Mention “biconcave, no nucleus, ❌ Just “carries oxygen.”
Red blood cell Carries oxygen
haemoglobin, flexible” Too vague.
Sweep mucus out of Always mention “dust/pathogens ❌ Writing “clean airways”
Ciliated cell
airway trapped in mucus” (too vague).
Use “large surface area, thin
❌ Forgetting active
Root hair cell Absorbs water/minerals wall, many mitochondria (active
transport for minerals.
transport)”

Use “myelin sheath speeds up ❌ Writing “sends

Nerve cell Transmits impulses
impulses; long axon for distance” messages” (too vague).

Use “flagellum for swimming; ❌ Saying “tail helps it

Sperm cell Fertilises egg acrosome with enzymes; swim fast” without
mitochondria for energy” energy detail.

Use “large cytoplasm with ❌ Saying “egg is big so

Carries female gamete;
Egg cell nutrients; jelly coat prevents sperm can find it.” Not in
nourishes embryo
polyspermy” mark scheme.
🦠 Other Cell Types
Type Key Features ✅ Tips ⚠️Traps
Cell wall (peptidoglycan), no ❌ Saying “cell wall =
Bacterial cell Always mention “DNA
nucleus, plasmids, 70S cellulose” or “has
(prokaryote) is free in cytoplasm”
ribosomes, flagellum (some) nucleus.”

DNA or RNA, protein coat, Always write “acellular, ❌ Saying “viruses are
Virus sometimes envelope, non-living, not living, replicate in cells” or “have both
reproduce only in host host” DNA and RNA.”

🔄 Cell Division
Type Key Features ✅ Tips ⚠️Traps

Produces 2 diploid, genetically

Use “genetically identical ❌ Writing “used to make
Mitosis identical cells; growth, repair,
diploid” gametes” → that’s meiosis.
asexual reproduction

Produces 4 haploid, Mention “variation due to ❌ Writing “identical

Meiosis genetically different gametes; crossing over and independent gametes” or forgetting
introduces variation assortment” variation.

Always state: mitosis = diploid, ❌ Mixing up chromatids vs

Key trap Chromosome numbers
meiosis = haploid chromosomes in separation.

🌟 Universal Examiner Tips

1. Use examiner keywords: “site of,” “contains,” “partially permeable,”
“genetically identical/different,” “haploid/diploid.”
2. Always link structure to function — don’t just list. (e.g. “Biconcave shape →
large surface area → faster diffusion of oxygen”).
3. For comparison questions (plant vs animal, bacteria vs eukaryote, mitosis vs
meiosis) → give at least 3 clear differences for full marks.
4. Be precise, not vague → examiners don’t award marks for everyday language
like “cells make energy” or “cell wall is strong.”
5. Units matter in magnification questions → mm → µm → nm conversions are
a classic lost mark.