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Chapter One
1 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
1.1 Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all
branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power,
electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric
circuit theory.

In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one
point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is
referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.

 An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1. It

consists of three basic elements: a battery, a lamp,
and connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can
exist by itself; it has several applications, such as a
flashlight, a search light, and so forth.
Figure 1.1 A simple electric circuit.

Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to accomplish different tasks. Our
objective is the analysis of the circuits. By the analysis of a circuit, we mean a study of the behavior
of the circuit: How does it respond to a given input? How do the interconnected elements and
devices in the circuit interact?

We commence our study by defining some basic concepts. These concepts include charge,
current, voltage, circuit elements, power, and energy.

1.2 Systems of Units

International measurement language is the International System of Units (SI), adopted by the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. In this system, there are seven principal
units from which the units of all other physical quantities can be derived. Table 1.1 shows these
units, their symbols, and the physical quantities they represent.

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Quantity Basic unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol
Table 1.1 Basic SI units and their symbols

1.3 Charge and Current

The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of
electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or walk
across a carpet and receive a shock.

 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,

measured in coulombs (C).

All matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that each atom consists
of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude
to 1.602 x 10-19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron.
The presence of equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.

The following points should be noted about electric charge:

1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1 / (1.602 x 10-19) = 6.24
x 1018 electrons. The real laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or C.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral
multiples of the electronic charge e = -1.602 x 10-19 C.
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed,
only transferred. Thus the sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.

A unique feature of electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it can be
transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.

Figure 1.2 Electric current due to flow of

electronic charge in a conductor

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When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction
while negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric
current. It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges. That is,
opposite of the flow of negative charges, as Fig. 1.2 illustrates. This convention was introduced by
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), the American scientist and inventor. The current in metallic
conductors is due to negatively charged electrons, and that current is the net flow of positive
charges.

 Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is

𝑑𝑞
𝑖= 𝛥 …………………………………………………………………………… (1.1)
𝑑𝑡

Where current is measured in amperes (A), and 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (1.1).

𝑄 = 𝛥 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 …………………………………………………………………… (1.2)

The way we define current as i in Eq. (1.1) suggests that current need not be a constant-valued
function. There can be several types of current; that is, charge can vary with time in several ways.
If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).

 A Direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.

By convention the symbol I is used to represent such a constant current. A time-varying current
is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current is the sinusoidal current or
alternating current (ac).

 An Alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

The direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the direction of positive charge
movement. Based on this convention, a current of 5 A may be represented positively or negatively
as shown in Fig. 1.3.

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Figure 1.3 Conventional current flow: (a) positive current flow, (b) negative current flow.

In other words, a negative current of -5 A flowing in one direction as shown in Fig. 1.3(b) is the
same as a current of +5 A flowing in the opposite direction.

Problem 1: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

Solution 1: Since each electron has -1.602 x 10-19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have -1.602 x 10-19
C/electron X 4,600 electrons = -7.369 x 10-16 C.

Problem 2: Calculate the amount of charge represented by four million (4,000,000) protons.

Answer 2: -6.408 x 10-13 C.

Problem 3: The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin4𝜋 t mC.

Calculate the current at t = 0.5s.

Solution 3: i = dq/dt = d/dt (5t sin4𝜋t) mC/s = (5 sin4𝜋t + 20𝜋t cos4𝜋t) mA

At t = 0.5, i = 5 sin 2𝜋 + 10𝜋 cos2𝜋 = 0 + 10𝜋 = 31.42 mA

Problem 4: If in problem 3 q = (10 - 10e- 2t) mC, find the current at t = 0.5s.

Answer 4: 7.36 mA.

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1.4 Voltage
To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy
transfer. This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), known as voltage or
potential difference.

 Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts (V).

The voltage VAB between two points A and B in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed
to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,
𝑑𝑤
Vab = 𝛥 ……………………………………………………………………… (1.3)
𝑑𝑞

Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage VAB or simply v is
measured in volts (V), named in honor of, the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745–
1827), who invented the first voltaic battery. From Eq. (1.3), it is evident that

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Figure 1.4 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to
points a and b.

Figure 1.4: Polarity of voltage Vab

The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity. The Vab
can be interpreted in two ways:

(1) Point a is at a potential of Vab volts higher than point b, or

(2) The potential at point a with respect to point b is Vab.

It follows logically that in general

Vab = -Vba ................................................................................................................. (1.4)

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Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits. The common term signal is
used for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when
it is used for conveying information. Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather than
mathematical functions of time because of their importance in communications and other
disciplines. Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a DC voltage and is represented by
V, whereas a sinusoidal time-varying voltage is called an AC voltage and is represented by v. A DC
voltage is commonly produced by a battery; AC voltage is produced by an electric generator.

1.5 Power and Energy

Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are not
sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an electric
device can handle. From our experience a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt bulb.
When we pay our bills to the electric utility company, we are paying for the electric energy
consumed over a certain period of time. Thus, power and energy calculations are important in
circuit analysis.

To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from physics that:

 Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

We write this relationship as

𝑑𝑤
𝑝= …………………………………………………………………………… (1.5)
𝑑𝑡

Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s). From Eqs.
(1.1), (1.3), and (1.5), it follows that
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑝= = ∗ = 𝑣𝑖 …………………………………………. (1.6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 ………………………………………………………………………..……. (1.7)

The power p in Eq. (1.7) is a time-varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power. Thus, the
power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and
the current through it. If the power has a [+] sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed by the
element. If, on the other hand, the power has a [-] sign, power is being supplied by the element.

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Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power. It is
therefore important that we pay attention to the relationship between current i and voltage v in
Fig. 1.5(a). The voltage polarity and current direction must conform to those shown in Fig. 1.5(a)
in order for the power to have a positive sign. This is known as the passive sign convention. By
the passive sign convention, current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage. In this
case p = +vi or vi > 0, or implies that the element is absorbing power. However, if p = -vi or vi < 0,
as in Fig. 1.5(b), the element is releasing or supplying power. Unless otherwise stated, we will
follow the passive sign convention throughout this course.

Figure 1.5 Reference polarities for power using

the passive sign convention:

(a) Absorbing power,

(b) Supplying power.

An absorbing power of + W is equivalent to a supplying power of - W. In general,

+ Power absorbed = - Power supplied

In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason,
the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

∑ 𝑝 = 0…………………………………….. (1.8)

This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total
power absorbed.

 Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

1 Wh = 3,600 J
Problem 1: An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a light bulb.
If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.
Solution: The total charge is Δq = i Δ t = 2 x 10 C = 20 C.
The voltage drop is v = dw/dq = 2.3 x 10 3 / 20 = 115 V.

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Problem 2: To move charge q from point a to point b requires J.
Find the voltage drop if: (a) 2 C, (b) - 6 C.
Answer: (a) -15 v (b) 5v

Problem 3: Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3 ms if the current entering its positive
terminal is i = 5cos60𝜋t A and voltage is (a) v = 3i (b) v = 3 di/dt

Solution: (a) The voltage is v = 3i = 15cos60𝜋t hence, the power is p = vi = 75cos260𝜋t W

At t = 3ms,

p = 75cos2 (60𝜋 x 3 x 10 -3) = 75 cos2 0.18𝜋 = 53.48 W

(b) We find the voltage and the power as

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1.6 Circuit Elements
An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements. Circuit analysis is the process of
determining voltages across (or the currents through) the elements of the circuit.

There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of
passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include
generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.

The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to
the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources.

 An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or

current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.

In other words, an ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is
necessary to maintain its terminal voltage. Physical sources such as batteries and generators may
be regarded as approximations to ideal voltage sources. The key idea to keep in mind is that a
voltage source comes with polarities in its symbol, while a current source comes with an arrow,
irrespective of what it depends on.

Figure 1.6 shows the symbols for independent voltage sources. Notice that both symbols in Fig.
1.6(a) and (b) can be used to represent a dc voltage source, but only the symbol in Fig. 1.11(a) can
be used for a time-varying voltage source.

Figure 1.6 Symbols for independent voltage sources:

(a) Used for constant or time-varying voltage,

(b) Used for constant voltage (dc).

Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a specified
current completely independent of the voltage across the source. That is, the current source
delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current where the
arrow indicates the direction of current i.

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 An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

Figure 1.7 independent current source. Figure 1.8 (a) dependent voltage, (b) dependent current source.

Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.8. Since
the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in
the circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types
of dependent sources, namely:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational amplifiers,
and integrated circuits.

It should be noted that an ideal voltage source (dependent or independent) will produce any
current required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as stated, whereas an ideal current source
will produce the necessary voltage to ensure the stated current flow. Thus, an ideal source could
in theory supply an infinite amount of energy. It should also be noted that not only do sources
supply power to a circuit, they can absorb power from a circuit too. For a voltage source, the
voltage but not the current supplied or drawn by it. Similarly, the current supplied by a current
source but not the voltage across it.

1.7 Applications
In this section, we will consider two practical applications of the concepts developed in this
chapter. The first one deals with the TV picture tube and the other with how electric utilities
determine your electric bill.

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1. TV Picture Tube: One important application of the motion of electrons is found in both
the transmission and reception of TV signals. At the transmission end, a TV camera
reduces a scene from an optical image to an electrical signal. Scanning is accomplished
with a thin beam of electrons in an iconoscope camera tube.
At the receiving end, the image is reconstructed by using a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
located in the TV receiver. The CRT beam varies in intensity according to the incoming
signal. The electron gun, maintained at a high potential, fires the electron beam. The beam
passes through two sets of plates for vertical and horizontal deflections so that the spot
on the screen where the beam strikes can move right and left and up and down. When the
electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, it gives off light at that spot. Thus, the beam
can be made to “paint” a picture on the TV screen.

Example 2: The electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 1015 electrons per second.
Determine the voltage V0 needed to accelerate the electron beam to achieve 4 W.
Solution:
The charge on an electron is
If the number of electrons is n, then q = ne and

The negative sign indicates that the current flows in a direction opposite to electron flow.
Then the beam power is

Exercise 2: If an electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 1013 electrons/second and is

passing through plates maintained at a potential difference of 30 kV, calculate the power
in the beam.
Ans: 48 mW

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2. Electricity Bills: It deals with how an electric utility company charges their customers.
The cost of electricity depends upon the amount of energy consumed in kilowatt-hours
(kWh). Other factors that affect the cost include demand and power factors; we will
ignore these for now. However, even if a consumer uses no energy at all, there is a minimum
service charge the customer must pay because it costs money to stay connected to the
power line. As energy consumption increases, the cost per kWh rises.

Example: A homeowner consumes 700 kWh in January. Determine the electricity bill for the
month using the following residential rate schedule:

Base monthly charge of $12.00.

First 100 kWh per month at 15 cents/kWh.
Next 200 kWh per month at 20 cents/kWh.
Over 300 kWh per month at 25 cents/kWh.

Solution: We calculate the electricity bill as follows.

Base monthly charge = $12.00
First 100 kWh @ $0.15/kWh = $15.00
Next 200 kWh @ $0.20/kWh = $40.00
Remaining 400 kWh @ $0.25/kWh = $100.00
Total charge = $167.00

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