Cross Drainage Works

Module-IV
Part-I
 Syllabus
• Cross Drainage Works: Types- selection
of suitable type of CD works- aqueduct
and Syphon
• Aqueduct- determination of maximum
flood discharge and waterway for drain,
fluming of canal- uplift pressure on
underside of barrel roof and at the floor of
the culvert- design of bank connections
 What is Cross Drainage
Works?
• In an Irrigation project, when the network
of main canals, branch canals, distributaries,
etc.. are provided, then these canals may
have to cross the natural drainages like
rivers, streams, nallahs, etc. at different
points within the command area of the
project. The crossing of the canals with
such obstacle cannot be avoided. So,
suitable structures must be constructed at the
crossing point for the easy flow of water
of the canal and drainage in the respective
directions. These structures are known as
cross-drainage works.
 Cross Drainage Works
• Irrigational Canals while carrying water from
headworks to crop field, have to cross few
natural drainage streams, nallaha, etc.. To
cross those drainages safely by the canals,
some suitable structures are required to
construct. Works required to construct, to
cross the drainage are called Cross Drainage
Works (CDWs). At the meeting point of
canals and drainages, bed levels may not be
same. Depending on their bed levels,
different structures are constructed and
accordingly they are designated by different
names.
 Necessity of Cross Drainage
Works
• The water-shed canals do not cross natural
drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and
the obstacles like natural drainages may be
present across the canal. So, the cross drainage
works must be provided for running the irrigation
system.
• At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the
drainage get intermixed. So, for the smooth running of
the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage
works are required.
• The site condition of the crossing point may be
such that without any suitable structure, the water of
the canal and drainage can not be diverted to their
natural directions. So, the cross drainage works
must be provided to maintain their natural direction of
flow.
Necessity of Cross Drainage
Works
 Types of Cross Drainage Works
• Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the
drainage)
• (a) Aqueduct
• (b) Siphon Aqueduct

• Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation

canal)
• (a) Super passage
• (b) Siphon super passage

• Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each

other of the same level)
• (a) Level crossing
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Works
• Relative bed levels
• Availability of suitable foundation
• Economical consideration
• Discharge of the drainage
• Construction problems
 Types of Cross Drainage Works
• Type-I Irrigation canal Passes over the
Drainage: This condition involves the
construction of following:
• Aqueduct
• The hydraulic structure in which the irrigation
canal is taken over the drainage (such as
river, stream etc..) is known as aqueduct.
This structure is suitable when bed level of
canal is above the highest flood level of
drainage. In this case, the drainage water
passes clearly below the canal.
Aqueduct
Aqueduct
Aqueduct
 Siphon Aqueduct
• In a hydraulic structure where the canal is
taken over the drainage, but the drainage
water cannot pass clearly below the canal.
It flows under siphonic action. So, it is
known as siphon aqueduct. This structure
is suitable when the bed level of canal is
below the highest flood level.
Siphon Aqueduct
Siphon Aqueduct
 Types of Cross Drainage Works
• Type-II Drainage Passes Over the
irrigation Canal.
• Super Passage
• The hydraulic structure in which the
drainage is taken over the irrigation canal
is known as super passage. The structure
is suitable when the bed level of drainage
is above the full supply level of the canal.
The water of the canal passes clearly
below the drainage.
Super Passage
Super Passage
 Siphon Super Passage
• The hydraulic structure in which the
drainage is taken over the irrigation canal,
but the canal water passes below the
drainage under siphonic action is known
as siphon super passage. This structure is
suitable when the bed level of drainage is
below the full supply level of the canal.
Siphon Super Passage
Siphon Super Passage
 Types of Cross Drainage
Works
• Type III Drainage and Canal Intersect
each other at the same level.
• Level Crossings
• When the bed level of canal and the stream are
approximately the same and quality of water in
canal and stream is not much different, the cross
drainage work constructed is called level crossing
where water of canal and stream is allowed to mix.
With the help of regulators both in canal and
stream, water is disposed through canal and
stream in required quantity. Level crossing
consists of following components (i) crest wall (ii)
Stream regulator (iii) Canal regulator.
Level Crossings
Level Crossing
 Types of Cross Drainage
Works
• Inlet and Outlet
• When irrigation canal meets a small stream
or drain at same level, drain is allowed to
enter the canal as in inlet. At some distance
from this inlet point, a part of water is allowed
to drain as outlet which eventually meets the
original stream. Stone pitching is required at
the inlet and outlet. The bed and banks
between inlet and outlet are also protected by
stone pitching. This type of CDW is called
Inlet and Outlet.
Inlet and Outlet
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Work
• The following factors should be considered:
• (i) Relative Bed Level
• According to the relative bed levels of the canal and the river
or drainage, the type of cross drainage work are generally
selected which has been discussed earlier. But some
problems may come at the crossing point
• The following points should be remembered while
recommending the type of work,
• (a) The crossing should be at right angle to each other,
• (b) Well defined cross-section of the river or drainage should
be available.
• (c) At the crossing point the drainage should be straight for a
considerable length.
• (d) The width of the drainage should be narrow as far as
possible.
• Considering the above points The C/s can be shifted to the
downstream or upstream.
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Work
Availability of Suitable Foundation
• For the construction of cross drainage
works suitable foundation is required. By
boring test, if suitable foundation is not
available, then the type of cross drainage
work should be selected to site Condition.
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Work
Economic Consideration
• The cost of construction of cross drainage
works should be justified with respect to
the project cost and overall benefits of the
project. So, the type of works should be
selected considering the economical point
of view.
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Work
Discharge of the drainage
Practically the discharge of the drainage is
very uncertain in rainy season. So, the
structure should be carefully selected so that
it may not be destroyed due to unexpected
heavy discharge of the river or drainage.
 Selection of Type of Cross
Drainage Work
Construction of Problems
• Different types of constructional problems may
arise at the site such as sub soil water,
construction materials, communication,
availability of land etc. So the type of works
should be selected according to the site
condition.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
 Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• The high flood discharge for smaller drain can
be worked out by using empirical formulas; and
for large drains other methods such as
Hydrograph analysis, Rational formula, etc may
be used.
• In general the methods used in the
estimation of the flood flow can be group as:
• Physical Indications of past floods
• Empirical formulae and curves
• Overland flow hydrograph and unit hydrograph
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• Physical Indications of past floods- flood marks
and local inquiry:
• The maximum flood discharge may be approximately
estimated by enquiring from the residents in the village
situated on the banks of the river about the flood
marks that the high flood in their memory in the past
may have left on the river banks.
• By noting the high water marks along the banks of the
river the cross-section area and wetted perimeter of
the flow section as well as the water surface slope
may be computed and using the manning’s formulae,
with suitable assumed value of the flood discharge
may be determined.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• Estimation of maximum flood discharge from rating curve:
During the period of high flood, it is almost impossible to
measure the discharge by making the use of markings of the
high water marks on the banks of the river, the elevated water
level, can be calculated. Making use of this values high water
marks in meters the value of maximum flood discharge can be
calculated, by extrapolation from the stage or rating discharge
curve
• The above mentioned curve needs to be extended for the
higher value of stage. It is done by using following methods.
• Simple Judgment
• Logarithmic method
• The above mentioned curve needs to be extended for the
higher value of stage, it is done by using following methods.
• (a) Simple Judgment
• (b) Logarithmic Method
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• (a) Simple Judgment
The rating curve can be extended, by simple
Judgment.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge

Simple Judgment method

Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• (b) Logarithmic method:
The following equation can be used to extend the rating
curve
Q= K d n
Where,
Q= Discharge (Cumecs)
d= Stage in (m)
K, n = Constants
By taking logarithms of both sides, we get,
Log Q= log k + n Log d
If the available curve is plotted on a log-log paper, then it
should be a straight line.
This line can be extended to calculate the discharge at a
higher stage.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge

Logarithmic method
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
Empirical Formulas
Several empirical formula have been developed for
estimating the maximum or peak value of flood
discharge. In these formulae the maximum flood
discharge Q of a river is expressed as a function of the
catchment area A. Most of these formulae may be written
in a general form as:
• Q=CAn
Where, C is coefficient and n is index, Both C and n
depend upon various factor, such as
(i) Size ,shape and location of catchment ,
(ii) Topography of the catchment,
(iii) intensity and duration of rainfall and distribution
pattern of the storm over catchment area.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• Dicken’s formula:
Q = CA ¾
Where,
Q= Maximum flood Discharge in cumec.
A= Area of Catchment in sq. Km
C= coefficient depending upon the region
The maximum value of C= 35.
• Ryve’s Formula:
Q= CA 2/3
Where, Q= discharge in cumec
A= Catchment Area in Sq. . Km
C= coefficient depending upon the region
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
Rational Method:
In this method it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is
produced by a certain rainfall intensity which lasts for a time
equal to or greater than the period of concentration time. When a
storm continues beyond concentration time every part of the
catchment would be contributing to the runoff at outlet and
therefore it represents condition of peak runoff. The runoff
corresponding to this condition is given by:
Q = 2. 78 C Ic A
Where, Q = Discharge in Cumec,
C= Coefficient which depends upon the characteristics
of the catchment.
Ic= The critical Intensity of rainfall (cm/hr) corresponding to the
time of Concentration (tc) of the catchment for a given
recurrence interval obtained from the intensity of duration
frequency curves.
A= Catchment Area in Km 2
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge

Rational Method:
 Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
Inglis formula:
• Q= 124 A = 124 A ½
√A + 10.4
Where Q= discharge in cumec
A= area of catchment in Sq.. Km.
Inglish formula is derived by using the data of rivers of
Mahashtra, where it is commonly used.

Ali Nawab Jang Bahadur formula:

Q= CA ( 0.993- 1/14 log A)
Where, Q= Discharge in Cumec
A=area of catchment insq .km
C= Coefficient which varies from 48 to 60.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• Myer’s formula
• Q= 175 √A
• Where,
• Q= Discharge in Cumec
• A= Area of Catchment in Sq.. Km.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
Envelop Curves:
• Areas having similar topographical features and
climatic conditions are grouped together. All
Available data regarding discharges and flood
formulae are compiled along their respective
catchment areas. The maximum discharges are
then plotted against the areas of the drainage
basins and a curve is drawn to cover or envelop
the highest plotted points, which is known as
envelope curve. By using envelop curves the
maximum flood discharge may be estimated if the
area of the drainage basin is known.
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• Overland flow Hydrograph and Unit Hydrograph:
• A Hydrograph is a graphical plot of discharge of a natural
stream or river versus time. It shows variation of discharge
with time, at a particular point of a stream. It also shows the
time distribution of total runoff at the point of measurement.
Discharge is usually expressed in cumec or hectare-metre per
day and time is expressed in hours, days or months.
Discharge is plotted on Y-axis and the corresponding time is
plotted on X-axis.

• Unit Hydrograph: A unit Hydrograph is a hydrograph

representing 1 cm of runoff from a rainfall of some duration
and specific areal distribution.
• Unit Hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of surface
runoff of a catchment area resulting from unit depth of rainfall
excess or net rainfall occurring uniformly over the basin at
uniform rate for a specified duration.
Hydrograph
Determination of Maximum Flood
Discharge
• When a unit hydrograph is available for the
catchment under consideration, it can be applied
to the design storm to yield the design flood
hydrograph from which peak flood value can be
obtained.
• Whenever possible it is advisable to use the unit
hydrograph method to obtain the peak flood. It
gives not only the flood peak but also the
complete flood hydrograph which is essentially
required in determining effective storage of
reservoir on flood peak through flood routing.
Unit Hydrograph
 Fluming of Canal
• The Contraction in the waterway of the canal (i.e. fluming of
canal) will reduce the length of barrels or the width of the
aqueduct. This is likely to produce economy in many cases.
The fluming of canal is generally not done when the canal
section is in earthen banks.
• The maximum fluming is generally governed by the extent
that the trough should remain subcritical, because if
supercritical velocities are generated, then the transition
back to the normal section on the downstream side of the
work may involve the possibility of the formation of a
hydraulic jump, This hydraulic jump, where not specially
required and designed for, would lead to undue loss of
head and large stresses on the work. The extent of fluming
is further governed by economy and permissible loss of
head. The greater is the fluming, the greater is the length of
transition wings upstream as well as down stream. This
extra cost of transition wings is balanced by the saving
obtain due to reduction in the width of the aqueduct. Hence
 Fluming of Canal
• After deciding the normal canal section and the flumed canal
section, the transition has to be designed so as to provide a
smooth change from one stage to the other, so as to avoid
sudden transitions and the formation of eddies, etc For this
reason, the u/s or approach wings should not be steeper than
26.5 and the d/s or departure wings should not be steeper than
18.5. Generally the normal earthen canal is trapezoidal, while
the flumed pucca canal section is rectangular. It is also not
necessary to keep the same depth in the normal and flumed
sections. Rather, it may sometimes be economical to increase
the depth and still further reduce the channel width in cases
where a channel encounters a reach of rocky terrain and has to
be flumed to curtail rock excavation. But an increase in the
water depth in the canal trough will certainly increase the uplift
pressure on the roof as well as floor of the culvert, thus
requiring larger roof and floor sections and lower foundations.
Due to these reasons, no appreciable economy may be
obtained by increasing depth.
Fluming of Canal
Fluming of Canal
 Fluming of Canal
• The following methods may be used for
designing the channel transitions:
• Mitra’s method of design of transition (when
water depth remains constant)
• Chaturvedi’s method of design of
transitions(when the depth remains constant)
• Hind’s method of design of transitions (when
water depth may or may not vary).
 Fluming of Canal
• Mitras method of design Transition when water depth
remains constant:
• Shri A.C. Mitra, Chief Engineer, U.P, Irrigation
Department has proposed a hyperbolic transition for the
design of channel transitions. According to him, the
channel width at any section X-X, at a distance x from
the flumed section is given by.
 Fluming of Canal
• Prof R.S Charturvedi, Head of Civil Engineering
Dept, in Roorkee University, on the basis of his
own experiments, had proposed the following
equation for the design of channel transitions
when water depth remains constant.
 Design of Bank Connections
• Two sets of wings are required in aqueducts and syphon-
aqueducts. These are:
• Canal wings or Land wings
• Drainage Wings or Water Wings
• Canal Wings: These wings provide a strong connection
between masonary or concrete sides of a canal trough and
earthen canal banks. These wings are generally warped in
plan so as to change the canal section from trapezoidal to
rectangular. They should be extended upto the end of splay.
These wings may be designed as retaining walls for
maximum differential earth pressure likely to come on them
with no water in the canal. The foundations of these wings
should not be left on filled earth. They should be taken deep
 Design of Bank Connections
• Drainage Wings or Water Wings or River
Wings: These wing walls retain and protect the
earthen slopes of the canal, guide the drainage
water entering and leaving the work, and join it to
guide banks and also provide a vertical cut-off
from the water seeping from the canal into
drainage bed. The foundations of these wings wall
should be capable of withstanding the maximum
differential pressure likely to come on them.
• The layouts of these sets of wings depend on the
extent of contraction of canal and drainage
waterways, and the general arrangement of the
work.
 Uplift Pressure on the Underside of
the trough or the Barrel Roof
• Uplift Pressure on the Barrel Roof
• The amount of the uplift pressure exerted by the
drain water on the roof of the culvert can be
evaluated by drawing the hydraulic Gradient line
(H.G).
• The uplift pressure at any point under the roof of the
culvert will be equal to the vertical ordinate between
hydraulic gradient line and the underside of the
canal trough at that point From the uplift diagram it
is very evident that the maximum uplift occurs at the
upstream end point near the entry. The slab
thickness should be designed to withstand this
maximum uplift.
Uplift Pressure on the Underside of
the trough or the Barrel Roof

The uplift pressure exerted by the drain water on the roof of the
culvert
 Uplift Pressure on the Underside of
the trough or the Barrel Roof
• The floor of the aqueduct or siphon is subjected to
uplift due to two cases:
• (a) Uplift due to Water-Table: This force acts
where the bottom floor is depressed below the
drainage bed, especially in syphon aqueducts.
• The maximum uplift under the worst condition
would occur when there is no water flowing in the
drain and the watertable has risen up to the
drainage bed. The maximum net uplift in such
case would be equal to the difference in level
between the drainage bed and the bottom of the
floor.
 Uplift Pressure on the Underside of
the trough or the Barrel Roof
• (b) Uplift Pressure due to Seepage of water from the
canal to the drainage.
• The maximum uplift due to this seepage occurs when the
canal is running full and there is no water in the drain. The
computation of this uplift due to this seepage occurs when the
canal is running full and there is no water in the drain. The
computation of this uplift, exerted by the water seeping from
the canal on the bottom of the floor, is very complex and
difficult, due to the fact that the flow takes place in three
dimensional flow net. The flow cannot be approximated to a
two dimensional flow, as there is no typical place across
which the flow is practically two dimensional. Hence, for
smaller works, Beligh’s Creep theory may be used for
assessing the seepage pressure, But for larger works, the
uplift pressure must be checked by model studies.
Uplift Pressure on the Underside of
the trough or the Barrel Roof

The floor of the aqueduct or siphon subjected to

uplift
 Exam Questions
Feb 2012, June. 2012.
• Describe with the help of sketches various types of
Cross-drainage works.
• What do you understand by a fall in canal? Why it
is necessary?
• What are the functions of a canal head regulator?
• Discuss, in brief, the various types of cross-drainage
works on a canal, including conditions of suitability of
the each work.
• Explain functions of cross regulator and distributory
head regulator.
• Discuss the methods for estimation of the design
discharge and waterway for a drain at an aqueduct.
• Explain method of finding out uplift pressure on barrels
of a siphon aqueduct.
 References
• Irrigation Engineering
– By Prof N N Basak
– Tata Mcgraw-Hill

• Irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic

Structures
– By Prof. Santosh Kumar Garg
– Khanna Publishers

• Internet Websites
• [Link]
• Lecture Notes By: Dr. M. R. Kabir
• Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Department ,University of Asia Pacific (UAP), Dhaka
GHT Thanks………..