Etymology.

The reason of borrowings:

1. to fill a gap in vocabulary

�Potato�,�tomato� from Spanish when appeared in English (these vegetables)

2. It represents the same concept but in some aspect: a new shade of meaning.
Ex.: friendly-cordial (Latin)
Desire(French)-wish
Admire(Latin)-adore( French)

1. When borrowed words become assimilated in the language and the process of
assimilation develops to the point when it�s practically impossible to recognize
the origin of a word.
Ex.: cat, dinner, cup

2. Other words bear trace of their background.

Ex.: distance, development (French suffixes)

Skin, sky (Scandinavian)
Police, garage, cafe (French) Stress on the last syllable.

Some Norman borrowings have become fully adopted, no phonetic traces of their
French origin: table.

�Big in size� as first it retained a trace of it�s former meaning �wide� because it
was applied to object with vast horizontal dimension.
Nowadays it has approached very closely to the word �big�.

International words.

Borrowed by several languages.

Philosophy, mathematics, theatre, drama.
Terms of art, political terms, names of science, technological terms (telephone),
sports (football), fruits and food stuff (coffee, banana).

Etymological doublets.

�shirt�-�skirt� from the same root etymologically, although �shirt�- native,

�skirt�-(Scandinavian).
Resemblance-common origin. Both-articles of clothes.

Etymological doublets-words originated from the same etymological origin, but

different in phonemic shape and meaning.

Canal (Latin)
Chanel (French)

From the same root

Senior (Latin)
Sir (French)

Etymological triplets as well:

Hospital (Latin)
Hostel (French)
 Hotel (French)

to capture (Latin)
to catch
to chase

A doublet can be shortened: history-story

shadow-shade
defence-fence
fantasy-fancy
fanatic-fan

Loan Words
(translation loans)

Borrowings of a special kind�coz they are not taken into the vocabulary of another
language in the same phonemic shape they have functioned in their own language, but
undergo the process of translation.

�����������-wonder child
German
�������� ���-masterpiece

Russian: ��������- a five-year plan

k�����- collective farm

Sometimes in two different forms:

����-����- ����������� �����

Lightning war
Blitzkrieg

Borrowed words are mostly learned words and terminology (foreign words dominate the
native).
All short common words are native, but there are also a layer words which have
become fully adopted, their origin- unrecognizable.

Ex.: air face poor

our dress very
- native appearance and common use
French words are more formal and more emotional:
To begin-to commence
To wish-to desire
Motherly love-maternal love
Childish-infantile
Sunny-solar
(day) (system)
nosy-nasal
(parker) (sound,voice)
�������, ������� ���� ��� �� � ���� ����
handy-manual (therapy)
It is now essential to analyse the changes borrowings have undergone in the English
language and how they have adapted themselves to its peculiarities.
All the changes that borrowed elements undergo may be divided into two large
groups.
On the one hand there are changes specific of borrowed words only. -These changes
aim at adapting words of foreign origin to the norms of the borrowing language,
e.g. the consonant combinations [pn], [ps], [pt] in the words pneumatics,
psychology, Ptolemey of Greek origin were simplified into In], [s], [t], since the
consonant combinations [ps], [pt], [pn], very frequent at the end of English words
(as in sleeps, stopped, etc.), were never used in the initial position. For the
same reason the initial [ks] was changed into [z] (as in Gr. xylophone).
The suffixes -ar, -or, -ator in early Latin borrowings were replaced by the highly
productive Old English suffix -ere, as in Caesar>Casere, sutor>sutere.
By analogy with the great majority of nouns that form their plural in -s,
borrowings, even very recent ones, have assumed this inflection instead of their
original plural endings. The forms Soviets, bolsheviks, kolkhozes, sputniks
illustrate the process.
On the other hand we observe changes that are characteristic of both borrowed and
native words. These changes are due to the development of the word according to the
laws of the given language. When the highly inflected Old English system of
declension changed into the simpler system of Middle
English, early borrowings conformed with the general rule. Under the influence of
the so-called inflexional levelling borrowings like lasu, (MnE. law), feolasa (MnE.
fellow), straet (MnE. street), disc (MnE. dish) that had a number of grammatical
forms in Old English
acquired only three forms in Middle English: common case and possessive
case singular and plural (fellow, fellowes, fellowes).
It is very important to discriminate between the two processes�the adaptation of
borrowed material to the norms of the language and the
development of these words according to the laws of the language. This
differentiation is not always easily discernible. In most cases
we must resort to historical analysis before we can draw any definite
conclusions. There is nothing in the form of the words procession and progression
to show that' the former was already used in England in the llth century, the
latter not till the 15th century. The history of these words reveals that the word
procession has undergone a number of changes alongside with other English words
(change in declension, accentuation, structure, sounds), whereas the word
progression underwent some changes by analogy with the word procession and other
similar words already at the time of its appearance in the language.
Even a superficial examination of borrowed words in the English word-stock snows
that there are words among them that are easily recognized as foreign (such as
decollete, facade, Zeitgeist, voile) and there are others that have become so
firmly rooted in the language, so. thoroughly assimilated that it is sometimes
extremely difficult to distinguish them from words of Anglo-Saxon origin (these are
words like pupil, master, city, river, etc.).
Unassimilated words differ from assimilated ones in their pronunciation, spelling,
semantic structure, frequency and sphere of application. However, there is no
distinct border-line between the two groups. There are also words assimilated in
some respects and unassimilated in others, they may be called partially
assimilated. Such are communique, detente not yet assimilated phonetically,
phenomenon (pi. phenomena), graffito (pi. graffiti) unassimilated grammatically,
etc. So far no linguist has been able to suggest more or less comprehensive
criteria for determining the degree of assimilation of borrowings.
The degree of assimilation depends-in the first place upon the time of borrowing.
The general principle is: the older the borrowing, the more thoroughly it tends to
follow normal English habits of accentuation, pronunciation, etc. It is natural
that the bulk of early borrowings have acquired full English citizenship and that
most English speaking people are astonished on first hearing, that such everyday
words as window, chair, dish, box have not always belonged to their language. Late
borrowings often retain their foreign peculiarities.
However mere age is not the sole factor. Not only borrowings long in 'use, but also
those of recent date may be completely made over to conform to English patterns if
they are widely and popularly employed. Words that are rarely used in everyday
speech, that are known to a small .group of people retain their foreign
peculiarities. Thus many 19th- century French borrowings have been completely
assimilated (e.g. turbine, clinic, exploitation, diplomat), whereas the words
adopted much earlier noblesse [no'bles] (ME.), ennui [S'nwi:] (1667), have not been
assimilated even in point of pronunciation.
Another factor determining the process of assimilation is the way Jin which the
borrowing-was taken over into the language. Words borrowed orally are assimilated
more readily, they undergo greater changes, ; whereas with words adopted- through
writing the process of assimilation is longer and more laborious

CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT

There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic
borrowings, morphemic borrowings.
Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan
words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning.
Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by
the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is
changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress
is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The
paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also
changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic
borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings
from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme ) translations of
some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a
foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, �to take the bull by
the horns� (Latin), �fair sex� ( French), �living space� (German) etc. Some
translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period,
e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of
Indians, such as: �pipe of peace�, �pale-faced�, from German �masterpiece�,
�homesickness�, �superman�.
Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the
language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have
common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between
Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning �to live� for the word �to dwell�
which in Old English had the meaning �to wander�. Or else the meaning ���� ,
�������� for the word �gift� which in Old English had the meaning ������ �� ����.
Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word was borrowed into some other
language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into
English, e.g. �brigade� was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning �a working
collective�,��������. This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian
borrowing. The same is true of the English word �pioneer�.
Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when
many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so
that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people
speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the
English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in
English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. �goddess�,
�beautiful� etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from

what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same
group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated
easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words
borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the
language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d)
how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated
it is.
Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly
assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).
Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, cf
the French word �sport� and the native word �start�. Completely assimilated verbs
belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form
their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated
French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but
one.
Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the
borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into
the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing �sputnik�
is used in English only in one of its meanings.
Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a)
borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions
peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari,
sombrero, taiga, kvass etc.
b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and
Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum
-data, genius - genii etc.
c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial
sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are
used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ ( loss -
lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations
of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski
etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph �sh�,
e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl,
get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g. German,
child.
Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g.
police, cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g.
/a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of
sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard.
d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings �y�
can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), �ph� denotes the
sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), �ch� denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),�ps�
denotes the sound /s/ (psychology).
Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a
rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant
of the stem, (accompany, affirmative).
French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g.
consonants �p�, �t�, �s� are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup,
debris), Specifically French combination of letters �eau� /ou/ can be found in the
borrowings : beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French
pronunciation: �ch� is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, �qu� is pronounced
as /k/ e.g. bouquet, �ou� is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain
their French pronunciation, e.g. �i� is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; �g�
is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge.
Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common
nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and
digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. �a� is pronounced as /a:/
(Dictat), �u� is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), �au� is pronounced as /au/
(Hausfrau), �ei� is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced
in the German way, e.g. �s� before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), �v� is
pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), �w� is pronounced as /v/ , �ch� is pronounced as
/h/ (Kuchen).
Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by
Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete
(French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo
(Italian) etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING

TO THE LANGUAGE FROM WHICH THEY WERE BORROWED
ROMANIC BORROWINGS
Latin borrowings.
Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the
British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street,
port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of
Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed
which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical
borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church,
angel, devil, anthem.
Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period
due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because
Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as
frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were
partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such
words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.
Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are
words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of
them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in
technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism,
militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics) . In philology most of terms are
of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).

French borrowings
The influence of French on the English spelling.
The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into
English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of
English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as
the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic
letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted
by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. �v� was introduced for the
voiced consonant /v/ instead of �f� in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the
digraph �ch� was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter �c� /
chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph �sh� was
introduced instead of the combination �sc� to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the
digraph �th� was introduced instead of the Runic letters �0� and � � /this,
thing/, the letter �y� was introduced instead of the Runic letter �3� to denote the
sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph �qu� substituted the combination �cw� to denote the
combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph �ou� was introduced to denote the
sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced
/au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for
French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter �u� before �v�,
�m�, �n� and the digraph �th� by the letter �o� to escape the combination of many
vertical lines /�sunu� - �son�, luvu� - �love�/.
Borrowing of French words.
There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:
a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government;
b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle;
c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister;
d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery;
e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ;
f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew.
Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French
literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely
assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:
a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure,
nuance, piruette, vaudeville;
b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre;
c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;
d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

Italian borrowings.
Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words
into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th
century, it was the word �bank� /from the Italian �banko� - �bench�/. Italian
money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered
losses they turned over their benches, it was called �banco rotta� from which the
English word �bankrupt� originated. In the 17-th century some geological terms were
borrowed : volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms
were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin.
But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-European
languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian : alto, baritone, basso, tenor,
falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operette, libretto, piano,
violin.
Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention : gazette, incognitto,
autostrada, fiasco, fascist, diletante, grotesque, graffitto etc.

Spanish borrowings.
Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are
the following semantic groups of them:
a) trade terms: cargo, embargo;
b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar;
c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobbaco, cocoa, banana, ananas,
apricot etc.

GERMANIC BORROWINGS

English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from
Scandinavian, German and Holland languages, though their number is much less than
borrowings from Romanic languages.
Scandinavian borrowings.
By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of
Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians
belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in
common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from
Scandinavian into English.
Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life,their cultural level was the
same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words
in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.
ON OE Modern E
syster sweoster sister
fiscr fisc fish
felagi felawe fellow
However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and
some of them were borrowed into English , such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid,
knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly,
wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.
Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom,
such as : same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with �th�: they,
them, their.
Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not exist in Old
English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman,
beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in
etc/.
German borrowings.
There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have
classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink,
quarts, gneiss, wolfram. There were also words denoting objects used in everyday
life which were borrowed from German: iceberg, lobby, rucksack, Kindergarten etc.
In the period of the Second World War the following words were borrowed:
Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber and many others.
After the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Berufsverbot,
Volkswagen etc.

Holland borrowings.
Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than
2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms
and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump,
keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.

Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are also
borrowings from a lot of other languages. We shall speak about Russian borrowings,
borrowings from the language which belongs to Slavoninc languages.
Russian borrowings.
There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words
from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly
words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet,
vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe
etc.
There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through
Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as : Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo.
volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots,
such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.
After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected
with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into
English, such as: collectivization. udarnik, Komsomol etc and also translation
loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc.
One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as:
glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.

ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS

Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As the result, we have
two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they
come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In
English there are some groups of them:
Latino-French doublets.
Latin English from Latin English from French
uncia inch ounce
moneta mint money
camera camera chamber

Franco-French doublets
doublets borrowed from different dialects of French.
Norman Paris
canal channel
captain chieftain
 catch chaise
Scandinavian-English doublets
Scandinavian English
skirt shirt
scabby shabby
There are also etymological doublets which were borrowed from the same language
during different historical periods, such as French doublets: gentil - �������,
�����������, etymological doublets are: gentle - �����, �������� and genteel -
�����������. From the French word gallant etymological doublets are : �gallant -
������� and ga�llant - ���������, ������������.
Sometimes etymological doublets are the result of borrowing different grammatical
forms of the same word, e.g. the Comparative degree of Latin �super� was �superior�
which was borrowed into English with the meaning �high in some quality or rank�.
The Superlative degree (Latin �supremus�)in English �supreme� with the meaning
�outstanding�, �prominent�. So �superior� and �supreme� are etymological doublets.