MODULE 3

PRESENTATION OF DATA

Collected data must be

organized in order to show
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES significant characteristics. They can
be presented in three forms:
At the end of the lesson, the students must be
able to: 1. Textual, where data are
presented in paragraph form
(a) Gain understanding of the different
2. Tabular, where data are
methods of data presentation;
presented in rows and columns
(b) Present data using the textual, tabular
3. Graphical, where data are
and graphical methods; and
presented in visual form.
(c) Find enjoyment in learning the lessons.

Tabular Presentation
Tabulation is the process of condensing classified data and arranging them in a table.
Through thos process, data can more readily be understood and comparisons may more easily be
made.
Classification is the process of putting together similar items from the mass of data we
have collected based in such characteristics as occupation, sex, height, income, weight,
nationality, etc. Such characteristics make it possible for us to classify data under particular
headings.
Normally, tabular presentation is much briefer than the text statement. Tabular
presentation facilitates analysis of relationships between and among collected data since these
data are systematically arranged into rows and columns. This systematic arrangement is called a
statistical table. Statistical tables are brief, easy to comprehend and more convenient to many
readers than a textual presentation.

What is a talligram?

''A talligram is a contraction of tally and diagram , wherein before presentation of

gathered data in the form of a statistical table , these data have to be tallied first in a
tabulation diagram of which is called the talligram.

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Collect the questionnaires. When questionnaires are returned to the organization, you can
begin tallying. If being done manually, paper is all that is needed. If the tally count is
computerized, a spreadsheet program works well.

Use a separate sheet of paper for each question on the questionnaire. Label the paper with the
question. For computerized tallies, create a separate page for each question.

Divide the paper into as many columns or rows as there are possible answers to the question.
Include a column or row for participants who skipped the question. Repeat these steps for all
questions asked on the questionnaire. For computerized tallies, divide each page into columns
for each separate answer by labeling the columns or rows with answers.

Summarize tallies. For each questionnaire, fill out the answers given by the participants. After
you record all questionnaires, total the tally sheets. Add every page, handwritten or
computerized, by counting the number of tallies in each box for each question. With
computerized tally sheets, you can enter formulas into the cells in the spreadsheet to perform
the addition automatically. Total all results to provide a summary that you can analyze to find
ways to improve your company's performance.

Sample of Retrieved Questionnaires

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Manual Tally Sheet

Computerized Tally Sheet

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Parts of a Statistical Table
A good statistical table has four essential parts: the table heading, stub, boxhead, and
body. If the figures in the table are not original, a source note is also included and usually placed
below the table or below the footnotes to the table, if they are present.
The first thing that we write in the table is the Table Heading consisting of a table number
and the title. The title should briefly explain the contents of the table.
Classifications or categories are found at the left side of the body of the table. These are
referred to as the stubs.
At the top of the column is the box head. It identifies what are contained in the column.
Included in the box head are the stub head, the master caption, and the column captions.
The main part of the table is its body. This contains the substance or the figures of one’s
data.

Types of Tables
1) The general or reference table is used mainly as a repository of information. It is
frequently very extensive, like the tables found in the 1970 Census of Population and
Housing Volume II.
2) The summary or text table is usually small in size and designed to guide the reader in
analyzing the data. It usually accompanies a text discussion and thus is normally referred
to as a text table.

Frequency Distribution Table

Frequency distribution refers to the tabular arrangement of data by classes or categories
together with their corresponding class frequencies. Class frequency refers to the number of
observations belonging to a class interval, or the number of items within a category. A class
interval is a grouping or category defined by a lower limit and an upper limit, such as 118-126,
127-135, 136-144, and so forth. In the class interval 118-126, for example, 118 is the lower limit
and 126 is the upper limit.

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Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution

BY PAGOSO (1992) BY PUNSALAN (1989)

[Link] the range by getting the difference [Link] the range.
between the highest and lowest values in a set
of data
[Link] the number of class intervals or [Link] the range by 10 to 15 to determine the
categories desired. The ideal number of class acceptable size of the interval.
intervals is between 5 and 15.
[Link] the approximate size of class [Link] the class interval. See to it that the
interval by dividing the range by the desired lowest interval begins with the number that is
number of class intervals. a multiple of the interval size.
[Link] the class intervals starting with the [Link] each score to the category of class
lowest lower limit as determined by the intervals it belongs to.
researcher’s choice. The upper limit is
determined by adding the size of the class
interval minus 1. Subsequent classes shall be
obtained in the same manner
[Link] each score to the category of class [Link] the tally column and summarize it
intervals it belongs to. under column F.
6. Count the tally column and summarize it 6. Compute the midpoint (M) for each class
under column F. Then sum up your frequency interval and put it under column M.
which is the total number of cases N.
7. Compute the midpoint by adding the upper [Link] cumulative distributions for “less
and lower limits of the class interval and than” and “greater than”
dividing the sum by 2.
[Link] cumulative distributions for “less [Link] the relative frequency distribution.
than” and “greater than”. Then put them under
column <CF and >CF. Cumulative
frequencies can be obtained by adding the
frequency for any class interval or category to
the total frequency for all categories above and
below it.
[Link] the relative frequency distribution.
This can be obtained following the formula:
CF
RF = ------- x 100
TF
Where: RF = relative frequency
CF = class frequency
TF = total frequency

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 Raw Data

120 133 180 138

140 150 170 153
161 149 124 168
148 139 161 142
130 143 137 147
156 151 128 118
165 138 147 167
146 150 149 129
142 158 152 130
175 148 142 159

In our example, the highest value is 175 and the lowest is 118. The range
therefore is 175-118 or 57.

Class Boundaries
Class boundaries are more precise expressions of the class limits by at least 0.5 of their
values. They are called the true class limits. The class boundary is situated between the upper
limit of one interval and the lower limit of the next interval. Thus, where we have 118-126 and
127-135 as two consecutive intervals, the class boundary is 126.5 because it is between 126 and
127 (the upper limit of the first class interval and the lower limit of the next interval,
respectively.

Ways of Determining the Size of a Class Interval

1. By getting the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of a class
interval.
2. By getting the difference between any two consecutive upper limits.
3. By getting the difference between any two consecutive lower limits.

RULES ON THE USE OF TABLES

1. The results/findings of the study are usually presented in the manuscript using tables as
supporting materials for the discussion. As such, they be presented in the text only
after they are cited or mentioned.

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 2. Large tables that are typed sideways must be placed such that the top of the table is at
binding side (i.e. the left side of the manuscript). The caption should be at the bottom
side of the page.
3. If it could not be avoided, tables should not be cut in the text, resulting to its appearance
in two or more pages. If only a small part of the table cannot be accommodated in this
regard, the font size may be reduced to 10.
4. Large tables which should appear in two or more pages, the next pages will need the table
number only with word “continued” (Example: Table 6 Continued)
5. Table number should be in Arabic and used consecutively throughout the entire
manuscript.
6. Only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized in the caption, except when
there are proper nouns present.
7. Major information in the tables (e.g. Treatment, Block, Mean, Frequency, Total, etc.
should be in singular form and in capital and bold letters. For secondary information (e.g.
Experimental F-value, Tabular F-value, etc.), only the first letter of important words
should be in capital letters. “Important word” does not include articles, prepositions and
conjunctions.
8. The number of blocks/observations/replications/samples in the table should be in Arabic
Number.
9. Entries in the table should be entered in double space, except when the use of single space
is unavoidable as in the case of long tables which cannot be accommodated in one page.
10. Footnotes for information in tables (e.g. ns for not significant, CV for coefficient of
variation) should be in single space and in italics using Font size 10 instead of 12.
11. Table caption should be as clear as possible which can be understood without referring
back to the text, placed two single spaces above the table and always ending with a period.
12. Define in footnotes or legends any abbreviations or symbols used in the tables (e.g. **,
+, *, sd etc.)
13. The main body of the table must be in double space with vertical lines generally omitted,
except when separating box-heads with units of quantity placed beneath the box-heads,
and the entries numbers) are aligned, especially with decimal numbers. A double bold
line may be used both at the upper and lower boundaries of all tables for matters of
emphasis.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Graphs are nothing else but pictures of numerical data. The kinds of graphs are: bar
graph, line graph, pie chart, pictogram or picture graph, map graph or cartograph.

Advantages of Graphical Presentation

1) Graphs enable students, readers and busy executives to readily grasp the essential facts
that numerical data intend to convey.
2) They can easily attract attention and are more readily understood.
3) Graphs simplify concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so many words.

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Kinds of Graphs or Diagrams

1. Bar Graph – is one of the most common and widely used graphical devices. This consists
of bars or heavy lines of equal widths, either all vertical or all horizontal. The lengths of
the bars represent the magnitudes of the quantities being compared.

Compound (multiple) bar chart – two or more bars are drawn for each item. It is used to
compare two or more variables.

Component bar chart – divides or breaks down total quantities into their component parts.
Descriptions of the items involved may be written on or beside the bars. Actual amounts
or percentages may also be written in the same manner.

2. Line Graph – is another important tool for the graphical representation of data. This
graph shows the relationship between two or more sets of quantities. It may show the
relationship, for example, between the price of a good and the amount of good bought at
that price; between the rate of profit and the level of investments; between interest rates
and the amount of bank deposits; between wages and the number of workers employed;
and so on

3. Circle Graph – also called “pie” chart. It is used to represent quantities that make up a
whole. In constructing a pie chart, the point to remember is that since there are 3600 in a
circle which represents the total items (i.e. 100%), it follows that one percent = 3.60
3600
( 100 ) = 3600 . The pie diagram may be constructed using percents or the actual
figures. The slices of the pie must be drawn in proportion to the different values of each
item.

4. Pictogram – sometimes known as picture-graph. In this type of chart, picture symbols are
used to represent values. For example, in order to represent population statistics, the
picture of persons are drawn; or to represent numerical data on gold production, the
picture of gold bullions are drawn. The pictures drawn should fit the data being
presented.

5. Map Graph or Cartogram – one of the best ways to present geographical data. In this type
of graph, a map is drawn and divided into the desired regions. Each region may be
distinguished from other regions by using varied lines, shadings with different colors, or
other symbols like pins. It is always accompanied by a legend which tells the meaning of
the lines, colors of symbols used.

Graphical Devices to Represent a Frequency Distribution

a) Histogram – consists of a set of rectangles having bases on a horizontal axis which center
on the class marks. The base widths correspond to the class size and the heights of the
rectangles correspond to the class frequencies.
b) Frequency polygon – a line graph of class frequencies plotted against class marks. It is
made by connecting the midpoints of the rectangular tops in the histogram, or simply
joining the plotted points for the class marks and their corresponding frequencies.

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How to Construct Good Bar Graphs

1. Determine the largest and smallest number in the given data and choose a unit of length
such that the largest bar is within the space of the paper provided for the graph.
2. The lengths of the bars must be proportioned to the numbers they represent. The bars
must be of equal width.
3. The space between any two consecutive bars must be the same and as much as possible
must not be less than one-half of the width of the bar.
4. All designations or notations on the vertical and horizontal axes must be indicated. For
convenience and accuracy, graphing or cross-section papers can be used.
5. Show the zero point. In cases where numbers between the zero point and a point in the
scale are irrelevant, you may omit these numbers by breaking the scale. The symbol for a
broken scale is /\/\/\/\.
6. The title must be clearly stated. It is usually written on the top of the graph.

How to Construct Line Graphs

For greater precision, we use coordinate or graphing papers. On these papers, we draw
two lines, called axes: one vertical and the other horizontal. The horizontal line is labeled as the
x-axis and the vertical line as the y-axis. The point at which the two axes intersect is called the
point of origin. From the point of origin going to the right (on the horizontal axis) we mark off
equal spaces to denote equal intervals of time. From the origin and going up the vertical axis, we
mark off equal spaces to denote corresponding numbers.
Some Rules in Making Line Graphs
1. The title of the graph must be clearly stated, usually on the top of the graph so that it will
not interfere with the curves on the graph.
2. All axes should be scaled and labelled with the variables they represent.
3. Sources and footnotes should be provided when necessary.
4. The zero point should always be shown. Equal spaces should be scaled for the units they
represent.
5. The graph should not be loaded with many curves. If two or more variables are compared
in a graph, the lines should still be clearly discerned for basis of comparison.
6. The vertical axis nay show a “broken line” to indicate that some points in the scale are
unnecessary or have been compressed because they do not have corresponding values in
the data.

Some Rules in Doing Pictograms

1. The symbols used must be self-explanatory. If the data are about television, a picture
of television sets must be drawn; if the data are about tire production, a picture of
tires must be drawn.
2. Use legends to represent the number of units in a picture.

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 3. Some pictograms show only approximate values. For more precision, it is advisable
to place explixit numerical values (whenever possible) below the symbols they
represent.

RULES ON THE USE OF GRAPHS

1. In the discussion of results, figures in form of charts, graphs, drawings, photos,

diagrams and computer print outs, maps, sketches, and the like are often used to
enhance clarity of result presentation.
2. As supporting materials, figures should be presented only when appropriate and logical.
They are presented as soon as they are mentioned in the text.
3. Large figures that are presented sideways must be placed in such a way that the top of
the figure is at binding side (i.e. the left side of the manuscript).
4. The caption of the figure should be clear enough although brief to enhance
understanding without necessarily referring back to the text.
5. The caption of the figure should be placed at the bottom portion, i.e. right side of the
manuscript and always ending with a period.
6. In labeling figures/graphs, the description of the y-axis should be parallel to the y-axis
line.
7. When presenting photographs, it should have clear backgrounds to enhance the
appearance of the object in picture.
8. Figures should be numbered consecutively throughout the manuscript using Arabic
numbers.
9. Wide figures should be presented broadside with the top at the binding side , e.g. left
side of the manuscript.
10. Only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized in the caption except when
there are proper nouns present.
11. Define in footnotes or legends any abbreviations or symbols used un figures.

EVALUATION

1. Choose a simple topic for research and collect data from the BSABE students of
CapSU-Pontevedra. Make a tallygram and tabular presentations for the data gathered.

2. Make tabular, graphical and textual presentations of the enrollment data of BSABE at
CapSU-Pontevedra Campus: First Year – 49 (Male-18, Female -31) Second Year – 48
(Male-20,Female-26), Third Year – 31 (Male-12, Female-19)

3. Make a frequency distribution for the following data on midterm scores of 25 students:
25, 75,64,43,35,82, 68, 38, 65, 51, 56, 45,50, 35, 54,57, 42, 38, 60, 51, 62, 63,57,28,34.
Also, make a graphical presentation for the frequency distribution made.

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 READINGS/ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Different graphs (pictures) from the internet

Rules for textual presentation

REFERENCES

[Link] How to create tally sheets

Gregorio, G. 2015. Writing Quality Thesis and Dissertations. Seguiban Printing and Publishing
Enterprises, Inc.
Pagoso, C. and G. Garcia. [Link] Statistics for College Students. Sinag-Tala
Publishers, Inc.
Punsalan, T and G. Uriarte. 1989. Statistics: A Simplified Approach. Rex Printing Company,
Inc.
Subong, P. and M.D. Beldia. 1995. Statistics for Research. Rex Printing Company, Inc.

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