INTRODUCTION
Childhood is the bedrock for laying the foundation of an individual's personality, emotion, and behavior.
Trauma for children may come in the form of physical abuse, neglect, emotional mistreatment, or
exposure to violence-all factors that can traumatically affect their psychological development. Such
experiences often disrupt a child's sense of safety and trust, leaving deep emotional scars that may
influence behavior later in life.
Unresolved childhood trauma is associated with increased aggressiveness, impulsivity, and difficulties in
emotional regulation, as research findings in psychology and criminology have indicated. Attachment
theory, by Bowlby, suggests that the lack of a secure and nurturing caregiver leads to unstable
relationships and antisocial tendencies. In the same way, the social learning theory postulates that
exposure to violence allows children to imitate this sort of behavior because such behaviors are perceived
as normal or acceptable. This escalates the chance of delinquency and crime in their teen years and
adulthood.
Not all children who are traumatized end up committing crimes. Protective factors include supportive
mentors, therapy, or positive peer influence that lower the risk. The powerful correlation of early negative
experiences with later criminal activity underlines the imperative need for programs of early intervention,
counseling, and community support. By treating childhood trauma, society can stop the spiral of violence
and prevent some crimes from occurring in the future.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. Adverse childhood experiences and pathways to violent behavior for women and men
Catherine Burke, Jennifer D Ellis, MacKenzie R Peltier, Walter Roberts, Terril L Verplaetse, Sarah
Phillips, Kelly E Moore, Phillip L Marotta, Sherry A McKee
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38, no. 3-4 (2023): 4034-4060.
Adversities in childhood are associated with a risk of committing future violence, although associations
between subgroups and biological sex are unknown. Using a nationally representative sample, the
relationship between ACEs, violence, and sex was examined. Based on results of latent class analysis, a
four-class model was identified (low adversity; moderate maltreatment with high household dysfunction;
severe maltreatment with moderate household dysfunction; severe multi-type adversities). Compared to
low adversity, all typology groups were at significantly higher risk to engage in violence (odds ratio >
2.10, ps < .013). The data supported a linear trajectory wherein greater childhood trauma was associated
with increased risk for violence. While men endorsed more violent behavior, the relationship between
ACEs and violence was significantly stronger among women. Previous findings identify that women are
more negatively impacted by ACEs and the current findings newly identify that this extends to violent
crime.
2) Sawalmeh, A. T. M., & Abudreas, M. R. (2023). The role of childhood trauma in criminal behaviour.
Universal Publishing INC.
The present research has applied a descriptive-analytical approach to assess the role of childhood traumas
in criminal behavior. The results showed that physical and sexual abuses, emotional abuse, neglect, and
improper home environment are the most prevalent traumas in criminals. The authors asserted that such
adverse experiences during childhood have a great effect on shaping behavioral outcomes later in life. The
paper ends with the recommendation for formulating a scientific and practical framework that will
substantially enhance the understanding of the link between childhood traumas and criminal behavior.
3) Yao, X., Zhang, H., & Zhao, R. (2022). Does trauma exacerbate criminal behavior? An exploratory
study of child maltreatment and chronic offending in a sample of Chinese juvenile offenders. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(18), 11197.
The present exploratory study investigated the relationship between different types of child maltreatment
and chronic offending in a sample of 695 male juvenile offenders in Southwest China. The descriptive
statistics indicated that the majority of offenders experienced at least one type of maltreatment, and
maltreatment level was higher for chronic offenders than for one-time offenders and recidivists.
Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that, among the five maltreatment types, only physical
abuse significantly enhanced the likelihood of becoming a chronic offender. The authors conclude that
early prevention and targeted interventions for physically abused youth are imperative for reducing both
chronic and violent offending.
4) Basto-Pereira, M., Gouveia-Pereira, M., Pereira, C. R., Barrett, E. L., Lawler, S., Newton, N.,
Stapinski, L., Prior, K., Costa, M. S. A., Ximenes, J. M., Rocha, A. S., Michel, G., Garcia, M., Rouchy, E.,
Al Shawi, A., Sarhan, Y., Fulano, C., Magaia, A. J., El-Astal, S., … Sakulku, J. (2022). The global impact
of adverse childhood experiences on criminal behavior: A cross-continental study. Child Abuse &
Neglect, 124, 105459.
This cross-continental study examined the association between ACEs and criminal behavior among 3,797
young adults in 10 countries. The ACE Questionnaire and items from the Deviant Behavior Variety Scale
revealed that physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and household substance abuse are
consistently predictive of greater criminal variety across sex and nations with different HDI rankings.
Some forms of household dysfunction showed either sex- or HDI-specific effects. Overall, the findings
confirm that ACEs universally increase the risk of criminal behavior and that household dysfunction
influences offending patterns based on social and cultural contexts.
5) Malvaso, C. G., Cale, J., Whitten, T., Day, A., Singh, S., Hackett, L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Ross, S.
(2022). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and trauma among young people who
offend: A systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(5), 1677–1694.
This systematic review synthesized the findings of 124 quantitative studies published since 2000 on
ACEs, trauma, and offending among justice-involved youth. Among young offenders in 13 countries,
almost 87% had experienced at least one traumatic event, and their likelihood of reporting at least one
ACE was over 12 times greater than that of nonoffending youth. The individual prevalence of ACEs
varied greatly, with parental separation being the most common. Young people with more ACEs were
more likely to report posttraumatic stress symptoms. However, examination of high-quality studies
revealed little evidence of ACE frequency predicting trauma symptoms or trauma mediating the
relationship between ACEs and offending. The authors emphasize the need for further research to explain
why only a proportion of youth exposed to ACEs go on to offend and how targeted prevention and
intervention initiatives should be developed.
6) Likitha, S., & Mishra, K. K. (2021). A review on relationship of childhood trauma with offending
behaviour. Mind and Society, 10(1–2), 15–21.
This review examined available evidence with respect to the relationship between childhood trauma and
offending behavior later in life. The results across studies indicated that a clear association between early
traumatic experiences and criminality does exist, with specific types of trauma showing strong
associations with adult offending among convicted individuals. It also emerges from the review that
childhood trauma is a significant contributing factor to criminal behaviour within prison populations. On
the whole, this synthesis will go to suggest that those experiencing trauma in childhood are more likely to
commit a range of crimes as adults, with the authors discussing possible explanations supported by the
literature.
7) Yao, Q. (2023). The relationship between childhood trauma and crime and its mechanism. Journal of
Education, Humanities and Social Sciences 22, 651–655.
This study examined the increasingly pressing issue of escalating crime rates and decreasing offender age
by considering childhood trauma as a major causative factor. Drawing on insights from ten experts, the
research examined how traumatic experiences in early life could denote later criminal activities. It
appeared that a child who suffers from trauma may internalize and imitate violent behaviors during his/her
development and also have psychological/mental disorders that increase the risk of offending. The study
has aimed at bringing into light the understanding of the mechanisms that link trauma to crime with the
aim of better informing efforts towards non-victimization and social responses to the recent upward trends
in crime rates.
8) Bogaerts, S., Tressová, D., Feijen, E., & Janković, M. (2025). Unraveling the association: How identity
mediates the impact of childhood trauma on criminal behavior. Behavioral Sciences, 15(1), 56.
This study investigated whether identity served as a mediator of the established relationship between
childhood trauma and adult criminal behavior. Three identity constructs-consolidated identity, disturbed
identity, and lack of identity-were analyzed using a sample of 191 men comprising community
participants and forensic psychiatric patients. The mediation analyses indicated that experiences of
childhood trauma predicted criminal behavior and were only significantly associated with lack of identity.
Lack of identity was the sole identity factor associated with criminal behavior and fully mediated the
trauma-crime relationship. These findings emphasize the key role that identity development, especially
deficits in identity, has in moderating pathways underlying early trauma to later offending and suggest that
interventions aimed at strengthening identity have the potential to reduce criminal tendencies among
individuals who have experienced trauma.
9) Özsoy, F., Taşcı, G., & Atmaca, M. (2022). Investigating the association of criminal behavior with
childhood traumas, impulsivity, and dominant temperaments in bipolar I disorder. The Primary Care
Companion for CNS Disorders, 24(4), 41812.
In this cross-sectional study, the authors compared 62 bipolar I patients with criminal histories, 40 bipolar
I patients without criminal histories, and 42 healthy controls regarding childhood trauma, impulsivity, and
temperament. Participants completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale,
and TEMPS-A temperament inventory. Results showed significantly higher scores of physical and
emotional abuse—and thus higher total trauma scores—in both bipolar groups compared to controls.
Bipolar individuals with criminal histories also had higher hyperthymic temperament scores. These
findings indicate that childhood trauma and dominant hyperthymic temperament may play a role in
criminal behavior among bipolar I patients. Taking temperament into consideration and psychosocial
support in treatment may help in decreasing violent tendencies and offending risk.
10) Cantürk, M., Faraji, H., & Tezcan, A. E. (2021). The relationship between childhood traumas and
crime in male prisoners. Alpha Psychiatry, 22(1), 56.
This investigation explored the association between childhood trauma, violence tendency, and criminal
behavior among 313 male prisoners convicted of various crimes. The researchers used sociodemographic
forms, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and the Violence Tendency Scale to find out that higher
levels of emotional abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, and sexual abuse were all associated with
stronger violent tendencies. Childhood trauma scores significantly predicted 11% of the variance in
violence tendency, and criminal behavior was influenced by sociodemographic factors. Authors state that
early identification of trauma-related psychiatric issues and violent tendencies could support preventive
interventions before individuals enter the criminal justice system.
11) Malvaso, C. G., Cale, J., Whitten, T., Day, A., Singh, S., Hackett, L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Ross, S.
(2022). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and trauma among young people who
offend: A systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(5), 1677–1694. This systematic
review included 124 quantitative studies published since 2000, examining the relationships among adverse
childhood experiences, trauma symptoms, and offending in justice-involved youth. A total of nearly 87%
of young offenders from 13 countries had experienced at least one traumatic event, and their odds of
reporting an ACE were over twelve times higher than for non-offending youth. There was large variation
in the prevalence of ACEs, ranging from childhood sexual abuse to parental separation. Youth with
multiple ACEs were more likely to exhibit post-trauma symptoms. However, there was limited evidence
from high-quality studies that the frequency of ACEs predicted trauma symptoms or that trauma mediated
the association between ACEs and offending. The authors emphasize the need for further research to
explore why only some youth who have been exposed to ACEs engage in criminal behavior and to better
inform effective prevention and intervention strategies. 12) Craig, J. M., Malvaso, C., & Farrington, D. P.
(2021). All in the family? Exploring the intergenerational transmission of exposure to adverse childhood
experiences and their effect on offending behavior. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19(3), 292–307.
This paper examines the hypothesis that ACEs are transmitted across generations and, in turn, influence
second-generation offending using data from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. The
results showed that parental ACEs raised the risk for children to experience ACEs, thus showing
intergenerational continuity. However, this effect attenuated when further risk factors were controlled. In
the same vein, the ACEs-second-generation conviction link decreased when controlling for broader
influences. The findings suggest that ACEs do indeed have a contributory role in intergenerational
patterns of risk and offending; these associations, however, are complex and multifactorial in nature. 13)
De Ruiter, C., Burghart, M., De Silva, R., Garcia, S. G., Mian, U., Walshe, E., & Zouharova, V. (2022). A
meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits. PLoS One, 17(8), e0272704.
This meta-analysis combined data from 47 studies in a total of 12,737 participants to explore associations
between childhood maltreatment and psychopathic traits as defined by the four facets: affective,
interpersonal, behavioral instability, and social deviance. Results showed moderate associations between
psychopathy and childhood physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and overall maltreatment, while the
association with sexual abuse was small though significant. The strongest associations were seen with the
behavioral and antisocial facets, although most associations across facets were significant. These findings
support theories regarding the link between complex trauma and the development of serious personality
disorders and emphasize the need for trauma-focused prevention and intervention. 14) Jones, M. S., &
Pierce, H. (2021). Early exposure to adverse childhood experiences and youth delinquent behavior in
fragile families. Youth & Society, 53(5), 841–867. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child
Wellbeing Study (n = 3,402), the current study considers how early exposure to adverse childhood
experiences (ACEs) shapes delinquent behavior among nonincarcerated youth. Guided by a life course
framework, the authors examined individual ACEs, cumulative ACE exposure, and the patterning of ACE
clustering prior to age five. The results indicate that all three types of ACE exposure significantly related
to later delinquent behavior. This study shows that understanding early-life adversity is important in
explanations for youth delinquency and frames ACEs as an important factor for sociological and
criminological inquiry. 15) Burke, C., Ellis, J. D., Peltier, M. R., Roberts, W., Verplaetse, T. L., Phillips,
S., Moore, K. E., Marotta, P. L., & McKee, S. A. (2023). Adverse childhood experiences and pathways to
violent behavior for women and men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3–4), 4034–4060. This study
investigated the relationship between ACEs and violent behavior among men and women using a
nationally representative sample. Latent class analysis revealed four ACE subgroups that ranged from low
adversity to severe multi-type adversities. All adversity groups showed significantly higher odds of
engaging in violence compared to the low adversity class, with a clear linear pattern indicating greater
childhood trauma predicted greater violence risk. Although men exhibited more violent behavior overall,
the strength of association between ACEs and violence was notably stronger among women. These
findings emphasize sex-specific vulnerability to the long-lasting effects of childhood trauma, particularly
regarding violent offending.
REFERENCES
Bogaerts, S., Tressová, D., Feijen, E., & Janković, M. (2025). Unraveling the association: How identity
mediates the impact of childhood trauma on criminal behavior. Behavioral Sciences, 15(1), 56.
Craig, J. M., Malvaso, C., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). All in the family? Exploring the intergenerational
transmission of exposure to adverse childhood experiences and their effect on offending behavior. Youth
Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19(3), 292–307.
De Ruiter, C., Burghart, M., De Silva, R., Garcia, S. G., Mian, U., Walshe, E., & Zouharova, V. (2022). A
meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits. PLOS ONE, 17(8), e0272704.
[Link]
Jones, M. S., & Pierce, H. (2021). Early exposure to adverse childhood experiences and youth delinquent
behavior in fragile families. Youth & Society, 53(5), 841–867.
Burke, C., Ellis, J. D., Peltier, M. R., Roberts, W., Verplaetse, T. L., Phillips, S., Moore, K. E., Marotta, P.
L., & McKee, S. A. (2023). Adverse childhood experiences and pathways to violent behavior for women
and men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3–4), 4034–4060.