WELDING

Welding is the process of joining similar or dissimilar metals by the application of heat, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the addition of filler material. Filler materials are additional metal
added to strengthen the coalescence (joining together). Metals being welded are called as base metals. The
assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called a weldment.
Weldability
Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under fabrication conditions and to perform satisfactorily
in the intended service. Weldability depends up on the following factors.
1. Melting point of the metal,
2. Thermal conductivity,
3. Thermal expansion,
4. Surface condition and
5. Change in microstructure.

Classification of welding
Welding of metals can be divided into two categories.
Plastic welding - In this type of welding, the metals to be joined are to be heated to the plastic state and then
forced together by external pressure without the addition of filler material. eg. forge welding, resistance
welding.
Fusion welding - In this type of welding, no pressure is involved but a very high temperature is produced in or
near the joint. The metal at the joint is heated to the molten state and allowed to solidify. The heat may be
generated by electric arc, combustion of gases or chemical action. A filler material may be used during the
welding process. eg. oxy-acetylene welding, carbon arc welding, etc.
Advantages of welding
1. Overall cost of welding equipment is low.
2. Large number of metals can be welded.
3. Welding operation can be mechanized.
4. High corrosion resistance compared to bolting and riveting.
5. Portable welding equipments are available.

Disadvantages of welding
1. Welding operation distorts (deforms) the work -pieces.
2. Skilled worker is a must to produce good weld.
3. Welded joints require heat treatment.
4. Welding produces chemical and physical changes.
5. Some welding operation gives off harmful radiations.

TYPES OF WELDING
1. Gas welding
a. Oxy-acetylene Welding (OAW)
b. Air-Acetylene Welding
 c. Oxy-Hydrogen Welding (OHW)
d. Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)
2. Arc welding
a. Carbon-Arc Welding (CAW)
b. Meta/Arc Welding (MAW)
c. Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG)
d. Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG)
e. Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
f. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
g. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
h. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCA W)
i. Electro-Slag welding (ESW)
3. Resistance welding
a. Resistance Butt Welding
b. Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
c. Seam Welding (RSEW)
d. Spot Welding (RSW)
e. High Frequency Resistance Welding (HFRW)
f. Projection Welding
4. Thermo chemical welding process
a. Thermit Welding (TW)
5. Solid state welding
a. Friction Welding (FRW)
b. Explosive Welding (EXW)
c. Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
d. Diffusion Welding (DFW)
6. Radiant energy welding
a. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
b. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

The choice of a particular welding process will depend on the following factors.
1. Type of metal and its metallurgical characteristics.
2. Types of joint, its location and welding position.
3. End use of the joint.
4. Cost of production.
5. Structural (mass) size.
6. Experience and abilities of manpower.
7. Joint accessibility.
8. Joint design.
9. Accuracy of assembling required.
10. Welding equipment available.
11. Work sequence.
12. Welder skill.
GAS WELDING
Oxy Fuel Gas Welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame. Gas welding is a fusion-welding process. It joins metals using the
heat of combustion of oxygen/air and fuel gas (acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane). The most common gas
welding process uses acetylene fuel is known as oxyacetylene welding and is used typically for structural sheet-
metal fabrication and automotive bodies and various other repair works. Temperature produced ranges from
2600 °C to 3300°C. The intense heat produced melts and fuses together the edges of parts to be welded,
generally with the addition of filler material.
ADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING
1. Oxy-fuel gas can be easily controlled.
2. It can weld most common materials.
3. Cost is low.
4. Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld zone.

DISADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING

1. Heavy sections cannot be joined.
2. Metals having high melting points ( eg. tungsten, molybdenum) cannot be gas welded.
3. Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating to eyes, nose and lungs.
4. It is slower than arc welding process.
5. Distortion to the work piece is more compared to arc welding process.
6. Equipment and gases are expensive.
7. Careful handling and storing is required.

APPLICATIONS OF GAS WELDING

1. It is used for joining thin sections.
2. It is used in automobile and aircraft industry.
3. It is used for joining various ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

FUELS USED IN GAS WELDING

Oxy-fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases, the most common being acetylene. Other gases that may be
used are hydrogen, propane, etc. Flame temperature and costs are major factors in selecting a fuel gas. The
oxyacetylene combination produces the highest temperature (3200 °C), the other gases are cooler (Oxy-
hydrogen -2500 °C, Oxy-propane 2500 °C) and their flames are less concentrated. Acetylene is unstable at a
pressure roughly equivalent to 10 meters underwater, so, water submerged cutting and welding is reserved for
hydrogen rather than acetylene. Propane is mostly used in brazing, soldering, and cutting operations than for
welding. In all the oxy-fuel gas welding processes, the combustion takes place in two stages.
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Oxy-acetylene gas welding process is widely used commercially for welding of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
particularly for thin sections up to 6 mm thick.
Oxy-acetylene welding works on the principle that when acetylene gas is mixed with oxygen in correct
proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt
and join the parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature about 3200 °C which is sufficient to
melt all commercial metals. A pool of metals to be joined which upon solidification forms a bond. Filler metals
are additional metal added to the weld. The composition of filler rod is same or nearly the same as that of the
part being welded. Filler metal (welding rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed. Flux is added to
remove the impurities and oxides formed during welding operation.
IMPORTANT PARTS OF OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENT
Acetylene cylinder
Acetylene cylinder is painted maroon and the valves are screwed left handed. Usual sizes of acetylene cylinder
are around 2800 and 5600 litres. Mild steel cylinder is charged to a pressure of 15.5 bar.
Oxygen cylinder
Oxygen cylinders are painted black and the valves are screwed right handed. Usual sizes of oxygen cylinder
are around 3400 and 6800 litres. Mild steel cylinder is charged to a pressure of 136.6 bar.
Oxygen and acetylene pressure regulators
The pressure of the gases obtained from the cylinders is considerably higher than the gas pressure required to
carry out the welding operation. The purpose of regulators is to reduce the pressures of gases and to produce
steady flow of gases.
Welding torch or blow pipe
Oxygen and the fuel gas are mixed in the welding torch. Welding torch controls the flow of gases to the welding
nozzle.
Welding rods
Welding rods is used as filler metal. The composition of filler rod is same or nearly the same as that of the part
being welded. Filler metal added increases the strength of the bond formed as additional metal is melted and
allowed to solidify.
Flux
During welding, if the metal is heated / melted in air, oxygen from air combines with the metal to form oxides
which result in poor quality, low strength welds. The flux metal is fusible and is non-metallic. Fluxes are
available as powders, pastes or liquids. Flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed. Slag floats
over the molten metal which is later removed. Flux also act as a cover preventing oxygen and other gases to
enter the molten pool. After welding, slag is removed by chipping, or grinding. Compositions of flux are
borates, borax, etc.
FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory welds. As only the valve for acetylene
in the torch is opened initially, it gives only acetylene flame only. Oxygen required for the flame is obtained
from the atmosphere. From acetylene flame, abundance of free carbon is released into the atmosphere.
Acetylene flame is used to apply carbon to the mould surfaces in the foundry.
Neutral flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportion)
Neutral flame is produced when equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
burnt at the torch tip. Oxygen to acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1. The temperature of the flame (inner cone) is of the
order about 3260 °C. The flame has defined inner cone which is light blue in colour. The neutral flame has a
clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that combustion is complete. It is surrounded by an outer flame
envelop which is darker blue than the inner cone. Envelop is usually darker blue in colour. Most of the welding
operation uses the neutral flame. Neutral flame is used for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast iron,
copper, aluminium, etc.
Oxidizing flame (Excess of oxygen)
Oxidizing flame is produced when excess of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at
the torch tip. Oxygen to acetylene ratio is 1.5 to 1. Oxidizing flame bums with a loud roar. The temperature of
the flame is of the order about 3482 °C. High temperature is due to presence of excess of oxygen. The flame
has an inner cone pointed and darker blue in colour than in neutral flame. Outer cone is usually darker blue in
colour and is shorter. When oxidizing flame is used, the excess oxygen oxidises the metal and is the reason why
it is not be used for welding of steel. The oxidizing flame is used where maximum temperature is desired or in
situations where oxidizing effect is not harmful. Oxidizing flame is used for the welding of copper and copper
based alloys.
Reducing flame or Carburizing flame (Excess of acetylene)
Reducing flame is produced when oxygen supplied is reduced. Excess of acetylene results in free carbon which
get deposited in the metal. The temperature of the flame is of about 3037°C. Reducing flame is recognized by
acetylene feather having pale green colour existing between the inner cone and the outer cone. The flame has
an inner cone which is dark blue in colour. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelop. Outer flame is longer
than that of neutral flame and is much brighter in colour. Envelop is usually darker blue in colour. Reducing
flame is (eg., non-ferrous metals) that do not absorb carbon.
Welding techniques in gas welding
Depending upon which welding rod and the welding torch may be used, there are two usual techniques in gas
welding, viz., leftward techniques or forehand welding method and rightward technique or backhand welding
method.
Leftward technique (forehand welding method)
In this method, the welder torch is held in right hand and filler rod in the left hand. The welding torch is directed
towards the un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod is directed towards the welded part of the joint. Welding
begins from the right side of the joint and proceeds towards the left side. Since the flame is pointed in the
direction of welding, it preheats the joint to be welded. Good control and neat appearance are the features of
leftward method. Leftward technique is used to weld thin metal; usually metals having thickness below 6 mm.
Filler metal consumed is more in leftward technique. Oxide formation is more in leftward technique.
Rightward technique (backhand welding method)
In this method also, the welder torch is held in right hand and filler rod in the left hand. The welding torch is
directed towards the completed weld and the filler metal remains between the flame and the completed weld
section. During welding, the filler rod is moved in circles or semi circles. Welding begins from the left side of
the joint and proceeds towards the right side. Since the flame is pointed to the welding joint, thicker or heavier
base metals can be welded. Rightward Technique is used to weld thick metals, usually metals having
thickness above 5 mm. No bevel is necessary for plate having thickness up to 8.2 mm. Filler metal consumed
is less in rightward technique. Oxide formation is less in rightward technique.
Leftward technique Rightward technique
It is used for welding thin sections (having thickness Thicker or heavier base metals can be welded (having
below 6 mm) thickness above 6 mm).
Oxide formation is more Oxide formation is less
Filler metal consumed is more Filler metal consumed is less
For thickness over 3 mm, it is necessary to bevel No bevel is necessary for plate having thickness up to
(edge preparation). 8.2 mm.

FILLER METALS USED IN GAS WELDING

Filler metals are additional metal added to the weld. The composition of filler rod is same or nearly the same
as that of the part being welded. Filler metal (welding rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed as
additional metal is melted and allowed to solidity. Filler metal is usually available in the rod form.
FLUXES USED IN GAS WELDING
During welding, if the metal is heated/melted in air, oxygen from air combines with the metal to form oxides
which result in poor quality, low strength welds. The flux metal is fusible and is non-metallic. Fluxes are
available as powders, pastes or liquids. Flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed. Slag floats
over the molten metal which is later removed. Flux also act as a cover preventing oxygen and other gases to
enter the molten pool. After welding, slag is removed by chipping, filling or grinding. Flux consists of borates,
potassium chloride, lithium chloride, borax, etc.
REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD FLUX
1. Should have a lower melting point than the base metal.
2. Should protect the weld from surroundings.
3. Should not cause corrosive action to the weld.
4. Should help the formation of slag.

ARC WELDING
Arc welding is one of the most widely used welding process. Arc welding is a fusion process for joining metals
and alloys. In arc welding, the surfaces to be joined are fused by the heat produced from an electric arc. Electric
arc is provided by AC or DC power source. A metal electrode is used for obtaining an arc between the metal
parts to be joined and electrode. The electrode is allowed to touch the joint faces of the metal parts to be joined
and is quickly removed to create a gap (2 mm to 4 mm) such that current continues to flow through a path of
ionized particles called plasma. An electric arc is produced due to this and which may generate a temperature
up to 6000°C to 7000°C at the centre of the arc depending up on the electrode. Intense heat so produced melts
the faces of the prepared joint forming a pool of molten metal. In most of the cases the electrode is also melted
and is transferred across the arc to the molten metal pool. The arc is maintained by uniformly moving the
electrode towards the work piece and hence keeping a constant gap between the electrode and work piece. At
the same time the electrode is moved along the desired line of welding. On solidification this forms a joint
between the two parent metals. The blast of arc forces the molten metal out of the pool around forming a
depression in the parent metal, around which there is molten metal. This is known as arc crater. Giving a side
to side motion to the welding arc during transferring material to the joint to be
welded is referred to as weaving. Weaving helps to avoid slag entrapment, reduces chances of porosity and
helps to have better fusion of the weld. Generally, electrodes are coated with a slagging or fluxing materials.
This provides a gas shield around the arc to prevent direct contact of oxygen and nitrogen in the air with the
deposited metal. In also covers the weld metal with a protective slag coating which prevents the oxidation of
weld metal during cooling. The slag is brushed off after cooling.
ARC WELDING ELECTRODES
Electrodes can be classified into non-consumable electrodes and consumable electrodes. The composition of
electrode depends up on the metal to be welded. For example, for welding mild steel, electrode of similar
composition is used so as to get a homogeneous weld joint. The size (diameter) of electrode depends up on the
amount of weld metal to be deposited and the gap between the two plates to be welded. Higher currents will be
required when bigger diameter electrodes are used.
Non-consumable electrodes
Non-consumable electrodes are those electrodes, which do not get consumed during the welding process.
Separate filler metals are necessary to fill the gap between the joints. Non-consumable electrodes are made up
of higher melting point materials like carbon, graphite or pure tungsten), thoriated (thorium increases the
electron emission qualities) or zirconiated tungsten electrodes (produces an extremely stable arc). Carbon and
graphite electrodes are used only with DC welding, where as tungsten electrodes are used for AC and DC
welding. Nonconsumable electrodes are used in carbon arc welding and TIG welding. Using nonconsumable
electrodes, good control over the process is possible. The electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage
of time, because of the vaporization and oxidation of electrode material during welding. As compared to carbon
electrodes, tungsten electrodes are more expensive and alloy tungsten electrodes are still more costly. Alloying
tungsten increases emissivity, resistance to contamination and arc stability.

Consumable electrodes
Consumable electrode is consumed during welding operation. Consumable electrode possesses more thermal
efficiency than nonconsumable electrode. It may be made of various metals depending upon the purpose and
chemical composition of the metals to be welded. Bare electrodes are used in coil form without coating as in
MIG welding. Metal arc welding make use of coated electrode. Commonly used core wire materials are mild
steel, low alloy steel, nickel steel, etc. Consumable electrodes may be classified as follows.
a) Bare electrodes -In bare electrodes, there won't be any coating of flux. Arc produced by bare electrode is
unstable. Joint produced by bare electrodes are not strong enough. Also, irregular metal transfer and
atmospheric contamination takes place. Bare electrodes are used when strength is not a concern.
b) Coated electrodes - Molten metal is exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere and so undesirable
oxides and other substances decreasing the strength of the weld formed. Coated electrodes (flux coated) are
used to prevent the formation of oxidizes and helps to form slag. Due to flux coating, the molten metal is not
exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere resulting in strong bond. Coated electrodes produce very
good weld appearances and defect free joints. Commonly used fluxes are asbestos, mica, silica etc. Coated
electrodes are again classified as lightly coated electrodes (coating less than 1 mm) and heavily coated
electrodes (thick coating of flux).
Selection of welding electrodes is critical. It depends on factors such as availability of current, composition of
base metal, thickness of base metal, welding position-flat, horizontal vertical, etc., amount of penetration
required in welding, etc.
WELDING ARC
Welding arc has been defined as a sustained electrical discharge through an ionized gas. The discharge is
initiated by an avalanche (sudden large amount) of electrons emitted from the hot cathode and maintained by
thermal ionization of the hot gas. This electrical discharge through an ionized gas (or a high temperature
conducting plasma) produces a good amount of heat energy which is employed for joining various metals and
alloys by fusion. A welding arc is a high current (up to 2000 Amps.) and low voltage (10-50 V) discharge.
When arc is struck, about 50% of the electrical energy fed into the arc is converted into heat energy. Electric
arc is used as heat source to melt the base metal and electrode (if consumable) in order to form a strong union
between the parts to be joined.
Arc initiation
Arc is initiated by providing a conducting path between the electrode and the job or by ionizing the gap between
the two. This can be achieved in the following methods:
1. In this method, the electrode is brought in contact with the work piece and then pulled apart to create a
very small gap. Touching of the electrode to the workpiece causes short circuiting, resulting in flow of
heavy current which in turns lead to heating, partial melting and even slight evaporation of the metal at
the electrode tip (figure a).

2. In this case steel wool is kept pressed between the electrode and the job. When the welding current
is switched on, the steel wool provides a conducting path for the arc to establish. This method can be
used in automatic submerged arc welding sets and automatic MIG welding machines (figure b).

FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMAW or SMAW) is an arc welding process in which weld is produced
by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between the flux coated electrode and the work-piece. SMAW is
the most commonly used welding process in fabrication and maintenance jobs. Steel when exposed to air forms
oxides and nitrides. These impurities weaken the weld. To prevent this molten metal is shielded by enveloping
it completely with an inert gas or flux. Arc melts the electrode and the job. The flux coating melts, produces a
gaseous shield to prevent the atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal. The electrode itself melts
and supplies the necessary filler metal. The arc produced between the electrode and work-piece heats the metal
to the melting temperature (about 2400- 2600 °C). Both AC and DC can be used in MMAW. The arc
temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased by employing higher or lower arc currents.
ADVANTAGES OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
 1. Flux shielded metal arc welding is the simplest of all the arc welding process.
2. Equipment is portable.
3. Big range of metals and alloys can be welded.
4. Good weld quality can be obtained.
5. Cost is fairly low.

DISADVANTAGES OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

1. Mechanization is difficult due to the limited length of electrode.
2. Due to the limited length of electrode, the welding needs to be restarted with a new electrode. Unless
properly cared, defect may occur at the place where welding is restarted.
3. Process is slow.
4. Because of fumes and particles of slag, the arc and metal transfer is not clear and thus welding control
is difficult.

APPLICATIONS OF FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

The process finds applications in air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications, ship building, pipes
and penstock joining, building and bridge construction, automotive and aircraft industry, etc.
Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG) or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMA)
MIG or GMA make use of the high heat produced by the electric arc between the consumable electrode and
material to be welded. The electrode is continuously fed through a gun. The current ranges from 100A to 400A
depending upon the diameter of the wire. The wire is fed at the rate up to up to 5 m/min. Usually, constant
voltage DC machine is used for MIG Welding. Welding Gun is either water cooled or air cooled. Welding wire
is often bare. Argon or argon helium mixtures are often used as shielding gases. Shielding is done to prevent
contamination of weld.
ADVANTAGES OF MIG WELDING
1. MIG welding can be used to weld ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
2. MIG welding does not require much skill.
3. Continuous welding at high speeds can be carried out.
4. Deeper penetration is possible.
5. Thick and thin sections can be welded easily.
6. Large metal deposition rates can be obtained.
7. No flux is used.
8. Faster compared to TIG and metal arc welding.

DISADVANTAGES OF MIG WELDING

1. Welding equipment is much complex.
2. Difficult to weld small corners.

APPLICATIONS OF MIG WELDING

1. MIG welding is used for welding of carbon, silicon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum,
magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, titanium, etc.
2. MIG welding is used for the manufacture of refrigerator parts.
3. Used in industries like aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel and ship building.
CO2 welding or Metal Active Gas welding (MAG)
MAG is a variation of the standard MIG process. Argon, helium or their mixtures used a shielding gas in MIG
welding is replaced by carbon dioxide in CO2 welding. CO2 welding is done in the similar way as MIG welding
i.e., the welding wire wound in coil is fed into the welding torch by the feeding motor automatically. CO 2 gas
supplied through the nozzle of the welding torch shield the weld pool. CO2 gas gets decomposed by the ultra-
high temperature arc heat into CO and O near the arc.
Features of CO2 welding
Higher fusion, higher welding speeds and elimination of welding defects such as lack penetration and lack of
fusion are the features of CO2 welding. CO2 welding is cheaper than MIG welding. The deposition efficiency
is high and formation of slag is little, which makes it unnecessary to remove slag after each pass. The CO 2
process is commonly used for welding carbon and low alloy steels.
Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
GTAW or TIG is a shielded metal arc welding process. TIG welding makes use of the high heat produced by
the electric arc between the non-consumable tungsten electrode and material to be welded.
The equipment required for the TIG welding operation includes a welding torch utilizing a non-consumable
tungsten electrode, a constant-current welding power supply, and a shielding gas source. Tungsten electrode is
used only to generate the arc. Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in the operation, a constant and
a stable arc gap is maintained at constant current level. Filler metal may be or may not be used. Shielding is
obtained by an inert gas such as helium or argon or mixture of two. Shielding is done to prevent contamination
of weld. Usually AC machine is used for TIG Welding (for nonferrous alloys) except for ferrous alloys DC is
used. End of the welding gun is water cooled. Leftward welding technique is usually used for the process.
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the most difficult of all the welding processes commonly
used in industry. Because the welder must maintain a short arc length, great care and skill are required to prevent
contact between the electrode and the workpiece. Unlike other welding processes, GTAW normally requires
two hands, since most applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with
one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other.
Base metals welded using TIG are carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat resisting alloys, refractory
metals, aluminum alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF GTAW
1. No flux is needed.
2. Clear visibility of arc.
3. Smooth welds can be obtained.

DISADVANTAGES OF GTAW
1. Under similar applications MIG is faster than TIG.
2. Tungsten if transferred can contaminate the weldment.
3. Costly.

APPLICATIONS OF GTAW or TIG

1. Used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles.
 2. Used to weld small- diameter, thin-wall tubing.
3. TIG welding is used for welding sheet metals and thinner sections.
4. TIG welding is used in precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft and instrument industries.

PLASMA ARC WELDING

Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is produced by the heat obtained
from a constricted arc setup between a tungsten/tungsten alloys electrode and water cooled nozzle or between
a tungsten electrode and the work-piece. Plasma arc welding is a shielded metal arc process. Plasma is high
temperature ionized gas (hydrogen or helium) conducting electricity.
When the gas is passed across an electric arc and then through a constrained opening, the gas gets ionized and
become plasma. This also raises the temperature of the gas. A nonconsumable tungsten electrode, water cooled
copper nozzle and gas shield (argon or argon mixtures) is employed for the welding. The process employs two
inert gases, one forms the arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma. Filler metal may or may not be
used. Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld. Temperature produced is about 10000°C to 14000°
C. Narrow and deep welds can be made using this process at high welding speeds.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASMA ARC WELDING
1. Used for welding and cutting operations.
2. Used for melting high melting point metals.
3. Used for welding of stainless steels, nickel alloys, etc.
4. No edge preparation needed.
5. Process is faster.
6. Stable arc can be produced.
7. Uniform penetration can be produced.
8. Excellent weld quality.

DISADVANTAGES OF PLASMA ARC WELDING

1. Welding equipment is much complex and expensive.
2. High noise.
3. Inert gas consumption is more.
4. Process is limited to metal thickness of 25 mm and lower butt welds.
5. Radiations are produced.

FEATURES OF PLASMA ARC WELDING

The manufacture of tubing (stainless steel, titanium alloy). Tubing made of stainless steel, titanium, and other
metals is being produced with the plasma process at higher production rates than previously with gas tungsten
arc welding. This process is also used to do work similar to electron beam welding, but with a much lower
equipment cost. The plasma welding process is able to join practically all commercially available metals.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASMA ARC WELDING
Plasma arc welding can be divided into two basic type viz., nontransferred arc process and transferred arc
process.
Non transferred arc process:
In non-transferred arc process, the arc is formed between workpiece (+) and electrode (-). Non transferred arc
process possesses more energy compared to transferred arc process. Non-transferred arc process makes use of
a current limiting resistor to generate this arc. It is used for cutting metals.
Transferred arc process:
In transferred arc process, the arc is formed between water cooled constricting nozzle (+) and electrode (-).
Transferred arc process possesses comparatively less energy. It is initiated by a high frequency unit in the
circuit. It is used for welding applications and metal plating.
Comparison between plasma arc welding and TIG welding
S No. Plasma arc welding TIG welding
1. It is a constricted arc process. It is a non-constricted arc process.
Uses two inert gases, one forms the arc plasma
2. Uses only one gas.
and the second shields the arc plasma.
Electrode remains within the nozzle, therefore
Chances of tungsten inclusion and electrode
3. tungsten inclusion and electrode contamination
contamination.
are nil.
4. Filler metal requirement are less. More.
5. Faster metal deposition. Slow metal deposition.
6. Total welding time is less. More.

Comparison between TIG welding and MIG welding

S No. TIG welding MIG welding
Uses continuous coil electrode of same chemical
1. TIG uses non-consumable tungsten electrode.
composition as the material being welded.
TIG welding electrode serves the purpose of MIG welding electrode serves the purpose of
2.
producing the arc only. producing arc and filler metal.
3. TIG is not fast as MIG. MIG is fast
4. Skilled labour is required. Not required.
With the use of filler metal, operators both hands
5. Electrode and gas come through same gun.
are engaged.
6. TIG is water cooled. No cooling is required.
7. It is not used for plates thicker than 6 mm. It is suited for plates more than 6 mm.
8. Penetration is not so deep. Deeper penetration can be obtained.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) or (hidden arc welding) or (subarc welding)

SAW is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc
setup between a bare metal electrode and the work-piece. In submerged arc welding, the arc is submerged under
a layer of flux and so the arc is invisible (a). Flux is fed through a flux hopper. The upper portion of flux is in
contact with the atmosphere. The flux may be made of silica, metal oxides or other compounds. Bare electrode
(steel stainless steel or copper, etc) is fed through the gun. The flux serves as a shield and protects the molten
weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Normally DC is employed for submerged welding, but AC is also
used. Instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux and a bare electrode is used. The process may be semi-
automatic or automatic. In manually operated SAW process (b), the operation starts with pulling the trigger is
pulled so that flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded. The arc is struck by touching the work-piece with
the electrode of by using a high frequency unit. In all cases arc is struck under
the cover of flux. Flux is a non-conductor of electricity, but once it melts due to the action of heat it becomes
highly conductive and hence current flow will be maintained between work-piece and electrode. Electrode at
a predetermined speed is fed to the joint to be welded.
ADVANTAGES OF SAW
1. Often automated, so faster.
2. Deep penetration and high quality weld is possible.
3. Operator can work without safety equipment.
4. Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
5. No sparks, fumes and visible arc.

DISADVANTAGES OF SAW
1. Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried out, he cannot judge accurately the progress of
welding.
2. SAW cannot be used for plates with less thickness.
3. Slag has to be removed continuously.
4. Can't be used for welding cast iron due to high heat input.
5. Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg Alloys, Pb and Zn cannot be welded by this process.

APPLICATIONS OF SAW
Submerged arc welding is used for welding of different grades of steels in many sectors such as shipbuilding,
offshore, structural and pressure vessel industries fabrication of pipes, penstocks, LPG cylinders, and bridge
girders.
RESISTANCE WELDING
Heat obtained from the resistance of the work to the flow of current in a circuit in which work is a part and by
the application of pressure. No filler metal is needed for the process. Three types of current supply systems are
used in resistance welding viz.,
a) AC systems (50 Hz low voltage supply),
b) DC systems and
c) Stored energy systems such as storage batteries, electromagnetic type.

ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

1) Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined.
2) Less wastage of metals and less deformation of metals.
3) Less pollution.

DISADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

1) Initial cost is high.
2) In some materials, surface preparation is needed.
3) Work-pieces with big job thickness cannot be welded.

Resistance Butt Welding (Resistance Upset Welding)

Resistance Butt Welding is a process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric
current between the two surfaces and by the application of pressure.
In upset butt welding, one of the work-piece to be welded is firmly gripped to a movable clamp and other to a
stationary clamp. Clamps hold the work-pieces and also conduct welding current through the work-pieces.
Force is applied so that the faces of the two work-pieces touch together and remain under pressure. Force is
applied by moving the work-piece fixed to the movable clamp towards the work-piece fixed to the stationary
clamp. Current is allowed to flow through this joint. There will be heat generated at the point of contact due to
the high resistance at the point of contact. Both pressure and current are applied throughout the process until
face becomes plastic. Then the work-pieces are pressured together to form a solid joint. Upsetting takes place
while the current is flowing and then the current is shut off. Work-pieces are unclamped. Resistance butt
welding is used for joining small ferrous and non-ferrous wires, pipes, tubes strips, rods and so on.
Resistance spot welding
Spot welding is a process of joining overlapping sheets by the heat generated by resistance to the flow of electric
current through the work-pieces held together under force by two pointed electrodes. It is used for joining
relatively light gauge (less thickness) parts (up to about 3 mm thick) superimposed on one another as a lap
joint.
In spot welding, the parts to be welded and electrode tips are cleaned. Water is allowed to pass through the weld
to avoid overheating and cool the weld. Sheets to be welded are placed one over the other and is placed between
the electrodes. Pressure is applied to the workpieces by the electrodes. Welding current is switched on for a
definite period of time. The current may vary from 3000 A to 100,000 A for a fraction of seconds to few seconds
depending upon the nature of material and its thickness. As the current passes through, a small area where the
work-pieces are in contact is heated due to the resistance offered by the materials in the contact area. Welding
current is then cut off and extra electrode force is then applied to the work-pieces. This electrode force or
pressure holds together the work-pieces. The electrode pressure is then released.
Advantages of spot welding
1. Good uniformity can be obtained.
2. No edge preparation is needed.

Disdvantages of spot welding

1. The equipment cost is high so it can have an effect on the initial cost.
2. Skilled welders or technicians are needed for the maintenance and controlling.

Applications of spot welding

1. Attaching handles to stainless-steel cookware,
2. To rapid spot welding of automobile bodies etc.

Resistance seam welding

Seam welding is a process of joining overlapping sheets by the heat generated by resistance to the flow of
electric current through the work-pieces held together under force by two rotating circular electrodes. It is
similar to spot welding, but differs in the type of electrodes used. In seam welding, rotating circular electrodes
replaces pointed electrodes in spot welding. Seam welds are produced using rotating electrodes with regularly
interrupted current.
Advantages of seam welding
 1. It can produce gas or air-tight liquid-tight joints.
2. Filler metals are not required. Hence no associated fumes or gases.

Disadvantages of seam welding

1. Welding can be done only along a straight or uniformly curved line.
2. Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3 mm.

Applications of seam welding

1. Fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels such as gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers, heat
exchangers, etc.
2. It is also used in the production of seam welded pipes and tubing.

STUD WELDING
The stud welding is type of an arc welding process where the coalescence is obtained by heating with an
electrical arc between the metal studs or similar parts and base metals. The stud (which may be a small part or,
more commonly, a threaded rod, hanger, or handle) serves as one of the electrodes while being joined to another
component, which is usually a flat plate. In order to concentrate the heat generated, prevent oxidation, and retain
the molten metal in the weld zone, a disposable ceramic ring (ferrule) is placed around the joint. Stud welding
is a one step fastening method which is used in locations which do not allow the use of other fasteners.
APPLICATIONS OF STUD WELDING
1. Automobile bodies,
2. Electrical panels,
3. Ship building;
4. The process is also used in building construction.

PERCUSSION WELDING
Percussion welding is a resistance welding process in which heat required for coalescence is obtained from an
intense discharge of electrical energy applied to the locality of the proposed weld for an extremely short time.
Pressure is applied percussively (rapidly) during or immediately following the electrical discharge. Percussion
welding machine comprise of means for converting AC from the mains into DC (in the form of a transformer
and a rectifier), a capacitor as the storage medium and the welding fixture consisting of a fixed arm and a
movable arm. The storage medium allows electrical energy to be stored and built up until the appropriate
moment for welding. The process of percussion welding is as follows:
➢ The pieces to be welded are held apart, one in the fixed arm and the other in a movable arm with their
end faces opposite to each other.
➢ By bringing them closer at a fast speed after switching on the current, a sudden discharge of electric
energy takes place, when the pieces are say, 0.16 mm apart.
➢ This causes an instant arcing over the surface thus bringing them to fusion temperature.
➢ The blow of the work-piece striking with a sufficient force completes the welding and extinguishes
the arc.
➢ The arc duration is very short, only 1 to 10 milliseconds.
APPLICATIONS OF PERCUSSION WELDING
1. Join dissimilar metals together.
2. Used when flash is not required at the joint.
3. This type of welding is limited to the materials having the same cross sectional areas and geometries.
4. Used on materials that have small cross sectional areas.
5. Percussion welding is useful where heating of the components adjacent to the joint is to be avoided, as
in electronic assemblies and electrical wires.

FRICTION WELDING
Friction welding is a solid state welding process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from
mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. The work parts are held together under
pressure. Temperatures developed are below the melting point of the metals welded but high enough to create
plastic flow and intermolecular bonding. In this process, the metals to be joined are mounted in a device with
one surface stationary and other is revolved under pressure. Pressure and rotation is continued until the
components achieve desired temperature for plastic flow. When mating parts achieve sufficient temperature,
then motion between the parts is stopped and pressure is increased to for the desired joint. Major factors that
affect the weld quality and productivity of friction welding are relative speed, friction pressure, duration of
heating and forge pressure.
The operational steps in friction welding are discussed below.
1. Two components to be welded are held in axial alignment.
2. One component held in chuck is rotated and accelerated to the desired speed.
3. The other component that is held stationary and held in the moving clamp is moved forward to come
in contact with the rotating component.
4. Pressure and rotation are maintained until the resulting temperature makes the metals plastic for
welding.
5. When sufficient heating has taken place a brake is applied to stop rotation and the axial force is
further increased to forge the components together.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION WELDING

1. Dissimilar metals can be welded.
2. It is used for welding of non ferrous metals (pipe, tubes, etc).
3. No edge preparation is needed.
4. Low power is needed.
5. Low cost.
6. No use of flux or filler metal.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION WELDING

1. Process is restricted to flat and angular welds.
2. So far process is applied to weld small pieces.

APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION WELDING

1. Joining steels, super-alloys, non ferrous metals and combinations of metals.
2. Production of steering shafts, worm gears, engine valves, cutting tools, etc.
ULTRASONIC WELDING
Ultrasonic welding (USW) is a solid state welding process in which joint is produced by the local application
of oscillating shear stress of ultrasonic frequency to the work-pieces held together under pressure. Although
heating of the contacting surfaces occurs due to interfacial rubbing and plastic deformation, the resulting
temperatures are well below the melting point. No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases are required in USW.
The oscillatory motion is transmitted to the upper work-pieces by means of a sonotrode, which is coupled to an
ultrasonic transducer. This device converts electrical power into high-frequency vibratory motion. Frequency
ranges from 15 kHz to 170 kHz. Clamping pressures are well below to produce any significant plastic
deformation in the work-pieces. The shearing stresses cause plastic deformation at the interface of the two
components, breaking up oxide films and contaminants and thus allowing good contact and producing a strong
solid-state bond. The operation is illustrated in the figure for lap welding, the typical application.