Subject

Computer Networks
DIPLOMA OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (DIT)

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Chapter 1: Basic Network 1.1.4 Message
Terminologies The message is the information or content the sende
communicates (e.g., text, speech, image).
1.1 Components of a Communication
Model 1.1.5 Protocol
1.1.1 Definition Protocols are rules or standards governing message transmission
A communication model refers to a (e.g., language, tone, format).
conceptual framework that describes
the process of communication. It 1.1.6 Destination / Receiver
outlines the components, elements, The receiver decodes the message and provides feedback
and steps involved in the transmission completing the communication process.
of information between a sender and a
receiver.

Components:
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Recipient
4. Medium
5. Protocols

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1.2 Computer Networks
A computer network is a set of interconnected devices (e.g.,
computers, servers) that exchange data and share resources
using communication protocols.
1.2.1 Basic Definition & Types
Types include:
Local Area Network (LAN): Connects devices within a limited
area (e.g., home, office).
Advantages: High speed, costeffective, resource sharing,
easy setup.
Disadvantages: Limited coverage, security risks, physical
dependence, limited scalability.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Covers a city, connecting
multiple LANs.
Advantages: High speed, large coverage, scalability,
reliability.
Disadvantages: High cost, complex configuration, security
vulnerabilities.
Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans large geographical areas
(e.g., countries).
Advantages: Large coverage, productivity, collaboration,
reliability.
Disadvantages: High cost, complexity, latency, security risks.
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1.3 Virtual (Logical) Networks
1.3.1 VLANs
Virtual LANs segment a LAN into
smaller virtual networks for flexible
management and security.

1.3.2 VPNs
Virtual Private Networks securely
access private networks over public
ones (e.g., for remote work).

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1.4 Function / Working
Networks enable device communication via unique identifiers (e.g., IP addresses)
and protocols (e.g., TCP/IP). Devices like routers and switches manage traffic,
while firewalls and encryption ensure security.

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Chapter 2
Network Topology
2.1. Definition
Network topology refers to the physical and
logical arrangement of devices and nodes
in a computer network. It describes how
devices are connected and how data is
transmitted between them. The topology of
a network determines how devices
communicate, how data is transmitted, and
how network traffic is managed. Network
topologies are:

2.2. Types of Topologies

There are different types of topologies,
classified into wired and wireless
categories:

2.2.1. Wired Topologies

Wired topologies use physical connections,
such as cables, to link nodes in a network.
The main wired topologies are:

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a. Bus Topology
Bus topology is a type of network topology in
which devices are connected to a central cable,
which acts as a shared communication line for
transmitting data between devices. In this
topology, data is transmitted along the cable in
both directions and all devices receive the data,
but only the intended recipient device processes
the data.

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Advantages:

1. Simplicity: Bus topology is simple and easy to install, as it requires only a single cable to connect all devices.

2. Costeffective: Bus topology is costeffective, as it requires only a single cable, which makes it an ideal choice for
small networks.

3. Easy to expand: Bus topology is easy to expand; as additional devices can be added to the network by
connecting them to the existing cable.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited cable length: Bus topology is limited by the maximum length of the cable, which is typically about 185
meters.

2. Single point of failure: Bus topology has a single point of failure, as the entire network will go down if the central
cable is damaged.

3. Poor Performance: Bus topology can experience poor performance, as the network becomes congested as the
number of devices on the network increases.

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b. Star Topology
Star topology is a type of network topology where
devices are connected to a central hub, which acts
as a gateway for transmitting data between devices.
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated
pointtopoint connection to the central hub, and all
data transmitted between devices passes through
the hub.

Advantages:

1. Centralized Control: The central hub provides a

centralized point of control and management for the
network, making it easier to manage and maintain.

2. Scalability: Star topology is scalable; as additional

devices can be easily added to the network by
connecting them to the central hub.

3. Improved Reliability: Star topology provides

improved reliability as the failure of one device does
not affect the operation of other devices on the
network.
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4. Easier to Troubleshoot: Star topology makes it easier to troubleshoot network issues, as all traffic passes
through the central hub.

Disadvantages:

1. Increased Cost: Star topology can be more expensive than other network topologies as it requires more cabling
and equipment, such as a central hub.

2. Single Point of Failure: The central hub is a single point of failure for the network, and if it fails, the entire
network will be down.

3. Bottleneck: The central hub can become a bottleneck if too much data is transmitted at once, slowing down the
overall performance of the network.

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c. Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a type of computer network topology in which each device is connected to every other device in
the network. This creates a highly interconnected network where multiple paths are available for data
transmission, making it more resilient and robust.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Resilience: With multiple paths for data transmission, a mesh topology can continue to function even if one of
the connections fails.
2. Robustness: In a mesh topology, each device acts as a relay, providing redundant paths for data
transmission, and making the network more robust.
3. Scalability: Mesh topology can be easily scaled; as additional devices can be added to the network without
affecting the overall structure of the network.
4. Flexibility: Mesh topology can be customized to meet specific network requirements, as the network can be
configured to accommodate a variety of devices and network configurations.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Complexity: Mesh topology can be complex and difficult to manage, as it requires a large number of
connections and routing protocols to be configured.
2. Cost: Mesh topology can be expensive to implement, as it requires a large number of devices and highspeed
communication links to be installed.

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3. Bandwidth: Mesh topology can consume a lot of bandwidth
as each device needs to communicate with every other
device in the network, leading to increased network traffic and
congestion.

d. Ring Topology
Ring topology is a type of network topology in which devices
are connected in a circular fashion, creating a closed loop. In
a ring topology, data is transmitted in a circular manner,
passing through each device in the network until it reaches its
destination.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

1. Efficient Data Transmission: In a ring topology, data is

transmitted in a circular manner, allowing for fast and efficient
data transmission.

2. Reliable: In a ring topology, data is transmitted in a circular

manner, making it less likely for data to be lost or damaged
during transmission.

3. Easy to Install: Ring topologies are relatively easy to install,

as devices are simply connected in a circular fashion. Haris CS
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

1. Single Point of Failure: In a ring topology, if one device fails, the

entire network can be disrupted, making the network less reliable.

2. Limited Scalability: Ring topologies are limited in terms of

scalability, as adding or removing devices can be difficult and
disruptive to the network.

3. Limited Bandwidth: In a ring topology, bandwidth is shared among

all devices on the network, making it more difficult to handle
increased network traffic.

e. Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is a network architecture that combines two or more
basic network topologies to create a single network. It is designed to
take advantage of the strengths of different topologies and to
overcome the weaknesses of individual topologies.

Hybrid Topology

Star Topology
Ring Topology
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Advantages:
1. Scalability: Hybrid topologies are highly scalable, as they allow the network to grow and expand as needed.

2. Flexibility: Hybrid topologies offer the flexibility of different topologies, making it possible to configure the
network to meet the specific needs of the organization.

3. Reliability: Hybrid topologies can provide a high level of reliability, as they can take advantage of the strengths
of different topologies to ensure the continuity of network services.

4. Improved Performance: Hybrid topologies can improve the performance of the network by using different
topologies to distribute and manage network traffic.

Disadvantages:
1. Complexity: Hybrid topologies can be complex and difficult to manage, especially for large and complex
networks.

2. Cost: Hybrid topologies can be more expensive to implement and maintain than other network architectures.

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3. Configuration: Hybrid topologies require
careful configuration and planning to
ensure that the different components of the
network are integrated and working
together effectively.

2.2.2. Wireless Topologies

Wireless topologies use wireless signals to
transmit data between nodes. The main
wireless topologies are:

a) WiFi Topology: This topology uses radio

waves to transmit data between devices
that are connected to a wireless access
point. WiFi networks can cover a large
area, but the signal strength can be
affected by obstacles and interference.

b) Satellite Topology: In this topology, data

is transmitted via a satellite that orbits the
Earth. This topology is useful for
connecting

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Chapter 3

Network Devices

34. Networking devices are hardware components used to connect and manage computer networks. They allow
different devices, such as computers, printers, and other peripherals, to communicate and share resources with
each other. Networking devices play a crucial role in the functionality and performance of computer networks.

Some common types of networking devices include:

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3.1 Node
A node in a network is a device or a point of
connection in a network. It refers to any device that
is connected to a network and is capable of
transmitting and receiving data. Nodes can be
computers, servers, routers, switches, hubs, and
any other device that is connected to a network.
In a computer network, nodes communicate with
each other to share data, resources, and
information. Nodes can be connected directly to the
network or indirectly through other devices, such as
routers or switches.

The number of nodes in a network determines its

size and the complexity of its architecture. In large
networks, nodes may be organized into
subnetworks, with each subnetwork having its own
set of nodes and devices.

Nodes play a critical role in the functionality and

performance of a network, as they are responsible
for transmitting and receiving data, managing
network traffic, and ensuring the reliability and
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3.2 Network Interface Card (NIC)
NIC stands for Network Interface
Card. It is a hardware component that
is installed in a computer to provide
network connectivity. The NIC is
responsible for transmitting and
receiving data over a network, and it
is the main interface between the
computer and the network.

The NIC contains a physical

connector, usually an RJ45 port,
which is used to connect the
computer to a network cable. It also
contains a microprocessor, memory,
and other components that are used
to process network traffic. The NIC
communicates with the computer's
operating system and network
protocols to transmit and receive data
packets over the network.

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NICs can be internal or external, and they The modern then converts the incoming analog signals back into
can be installed in a desktop computer or digital signals that can be processed by the computer. This allows
a laptop computer. They can also be computers and other devices to connect to the internet and
integrated into motherboards or added as communicate with other devices on the network.
a separate component. NICs can be used
to connect to wired networks, such as There are two types of modems: internal and external. An internal
Ethernet networks, or to wireless modem is installed inside a computer, while an external modem is a
networks, such as WiFi networks. separate device that is connected to the computer through a USB or
Ethernet port.
In conclusion, the NIC is a critical
component in computer networking, and it Modems play an important role in computer networks, as they allow
plays an important role in the functioning computers and other devices to access the internet and
and performance of a network. communicate with other devices on the network. They are typically
used in homes, small businesses, and other organizations that
3.3 Modem require basic internet connectivity

A modern (modulatordemodulator) is a
networking device that is used to provide
internet access to computers and other
devices. It connects to an internet service
provider (ISP) and converts digital signals
into analog signals that can be transmitted
over telephone lines, cable, or fiberoptic
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The modern then converts the incoming
analog signals back into digital signals
that can be processed by the computer.
This allows computers and other
devices to connect to the internet and
communicate with other devices on the
network.

There are two types of modems: internal

and external. An internal modem is
installed inside a computer, while an
external modem is a separate device
that is connected to the computer
through a USB or Ethernet port.

Modems play an important role in

computer networks, as they allow
computers and other devices to access
the internet and communicate with other
devices on the network. They are
typically used in homes, small
businesses, and other organizations that
require basic internet connectivity
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3.4 Hub

In a computer network, a hub is networking device that acts as a

central point for transmitting data packets between connected
devices. There are two main types of hubs: active and passive.

An active hub, also known as a network switch, has the ability to

regenerate and amplify the incoming data signals before forwarding
them to the other devices connected to it. This allows the active hub
to increase the overall network performance by reducing the signal
degradation that can occur over longer distances.

A passive hub, on the other hand, simply serves as a physical

connection point for the devices and does not regenerate or amplify
the signals. It simply acts as a conduit, transmitting the incoming data
packets to all other connected devices without any processing.

In general, passive hubs are less expensive than active hubs, but
It's worth noting that today, active
also offer less functionality and lower network performance. Active
hubs are more commonly referred to
hubs are typically used in larger and more sophisticated network
as switches, while passive hubs have
setups, while passive hubs are more commonly used in smaller,
become less common and have been
simpler networks.
replaced by switches and routers in
most modern
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networks.
Wireless Devices
Wireless devices are computer networking devices that use wireless
signals, such as radio waves, to communicate and connect to a
network without the need for physical cables. These devices include
wireless access points, wireless modems, wireless USB antennas,
and other wirelessenabled devices such as smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices. Wireless devices allow
for greater mobility and flexibility in network access, as they enable
users to connect to a network from anywhere within range of the
wireless signal.

3.6.1 Access Point

An access point (AP) is a device in a computer network that provides
wireless access to the network. It acts as a bridge between wireless
devices, such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets, and the wired
network infrastructure.

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An access point provides wireless coverage over a
specific area and allows wireless devices to connect
to the network wirelessly, eliminating the need for
physical connections. The access point receives data
from wireless devices and sends it over the wired
network to the intended destination. It also receives
data from the wired network and sends it to the
appropriate wireless device.

Access points can be configured to operate in

various modes, including standalone mode, in which
they act as an independent wireless network, or as
part of a wireless local area network (WLAN), where
multiple access points are used to provide wireless
coverage over a larger area.

Access points are a vital component of modern

computer networks, providing wireless connectivity to
users and allowing them to access the network and
its resources from anywhere within the coverage
area.

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3.6.2 Wireless Modem:
A wireless modem is a device that connects to a
cellular network or a satellite to provide wireless
Internet connectivity to devices such as
computers, laptops, and smartphones. It
converts the wireless signal into an Internet
connection that can be used by devices to
access the Internet.

3.6.3 Wireless USB Antenna:

A wireless USB antenna is a device that
connects to a computer and allows the
computer to connect to a wireless network. It
works by receiving wireless signals from a
wireless access point or router and converting
them into a signal that the computer can use to
access the Internet or other devices on the
network. Wireless USB antennas are useful for
extending the range of a wireless network,
improving signal strength, and providing
wireless connectivity to devices that do not have
builtin wireless capabilities

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3.7 WAN / Internet
WAN devices are used to connect networks together over long distances. These devices include routers,
switches, and modems that are designed to handle the specific requirements of WAN communication. WAN
devices may use various technologies such as leased lines, ISDN, DSL, or satellite connections to connect
different networks. The Internet is a global WAN that connects millions of devices worldwide. WAN and Internet
devices are essential for connecting devices across large distances and enabling global communication and
access to information.
3.7.1 Router
A router is a device in a computer network that routes and forwards data packets between different networks or
subnetworks. It acts as a connection point between multiple networks and helps to transmit data packets to their
intended destinations. Routers can use routing algorithms and routing tables to determine the best path for a data
packet to travel from one network to another. They also perform functions such as filtering, prioritizing, and
securing data traffic, as well as resolving network conflicts and managing network performance.

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3.7.2 Switch
A switch in computer networks is a device that connects multiple devices together and facilitates communication
between them. It acts as a traffic controller that receives, processes, and forwards data packets to their intended
destinations. Unlike a hub, a switch is able to direct data traffic to specific devices based on their unique
addresses, reducing the chances of network congestion and increasing the overall efficiency of the network.
Switches can be found in both wired and wireless networks and can be managed or unmanaged depending on
the network's requirements.

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 Chapter 4
Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the physical means by which data is transmitted from
one device to another in a computer network. It is the physical connection between the
network devices, such as computers, servers, switches, and routers, that enables the
transfer of data.
Transmission media may be bounded/wired or wireless/unbounded.

4.1 Wired/bounded media

Wired media refers to the physical cabling and associated hardware used to connect
devices in a computer network. It is a method of transmitting data by using a physical
connection, such as a cable, to transmit data between devices. Wired media typically
includes copper and fiberoptic cables that are used to connect computers, servers, and
other network devices to one another. The most common forms of wired media include
Ethernet cables, coaxial cables, and optical fiber cables. Each of these types of wired
media have different characteristics and limitations, such as transmission speed, signal
distance, and resistance to interference, that determine their suitability for different
types of computer networks. Wired media is generally more reliable and secure than
wireless media, and is often used for critical or sensitive applications, such as financial
transactions or government communications.

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4.1.1 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a type of transmission media that is commonly used in computer networks. It consists of a central
conductor surrounded by insulation and a metallic shield, which helps to reduce electromagnetic interference.
There are several different types of coaxial cable, including

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10 Base2: This type of coaxial cable is also known as ThinNet and is used to transmit Ethernet data signals over
short distances. It supports a maximum data transfer rate of 10 Mbps.

10Base5: This type of coaxial cable is also known as ThickNet and is used to transmit Ethernet data signals over
longer distances. It supports a maximum data transfer rate of 10 Mbps.

These types of coaxial cable

have different specifications and
are used in different network
environments depending on the
required data transfer rate and
distance.

4.1.2. BNC Connector

BNC (Bayonet , Neill-Concelman)
connector is a type of connector used
to terminate coaxial cable. BNC
connectors are commonly used in
computer networks, video equipment,
and other applications where coaxial
cable is used.
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4.1.3 Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cable is a type of transmission media used in computer networks. It consists of two insulated wires
that are twisted together to form a single cable. The twisting of the wires helps to reduce electromagnetic
interference and noise, making it a reliable transmission medium. There are two types of twisted pair cable:
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). UTP is the most common type of twisted pair cable
used in computer networks due to its low cost and ease of installation. In general, twisted pair cable supports data
transfer rates of up to 100 Mbps over distances of up to 100 meters.

[Link] Unshielded Twisted Pair cable

Unshielded twistedpair (UTP) is a type of copper
cabling that consists of two or more twisted pairs
of wires, without any shielding or insulation
around the wires. UTP is commonly used in
Ethernet and other network applications.

UTP is classified into different categories based

on its performance characteristics. The
categories are defined by the
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
and are designated as Cat 2, Cat 3, Cat 4, Cat 5,
Cat 6, and so on. Each category has different
specifications for bandwidth, crosstalk, and other
performance parameters.
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i. Cat 2 and Cat 3 UTP cables are designed for voice communication applications and have a maximum
bandwidth of 4 MHz and 16 MHz, respectively. They are commonly used for telephone systems and other
lowspeed applications.
ii. Cat 4, Cat 5, and Cat 6 UTP cables are designed for data transmission applications and have higher
bandwidths of 20 MHz, 100 MHz, and 250 MHz, respectively. They are commonly used in Ethernet networks and
other highspeed data applications.

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iii. RJ45 is a type of connector used to terminate UTP cables. It has eight pins and is commonly used in Ethernet
networks to connect computers, routers, switches, and other network devices. RJ45 connectors are designed to
work specifically with UTP cables and are not compatible with other types of cabling such as shielded twistedpair
(STP) or fiber optic cables.

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Shielded twisted pair cable?
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable is a type of twisted
pair cable that has an additional layer of shielding around
the wires. The shield helps to reduce electromagnetic
interference(EMI) and protect the data signal from
interference.
There are two types of STP cable:
1. Screened Twisted Pair (ScTP) cable: This type of STP
cable has a single shield around the entire cable,
providing a continuous layer of protection.
2. Foiled Twisted Pair (FTP) cable: This type of STP
cable has a shield around each individual wire, providing
extra protection against EMI.

STP cable is used in environments where there is a high

level of EMI, such as industrial facilities or environments
with heavy machinery. It is also used in highsecurity
networks, where the shielding provides added protection
against unauthorized access to the data signal.
STP cable is less common than Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) cable, which is the more commonly used type of
twisted pair cable in computer networks. UTP cable is
preferred due to its lower cost, flexibility, and ease of
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4.1.6 Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic cable is a type of transmission media that uses light to transmit data. It consists of a glass or plastic
core surrounded by a cladding layer and a protective jacket. The core of the cable is made of glass or plastic
which has a higher refractive index than the cladding, which causes light to be confined within the core. This
allows light to travel longdistances without being absorbed or scattered, making fiber optic cable ideal for
transmitting data over long distances.

There are two main types of fiber optic cable: singlemode and multimode.

[Link] Single Mode Fiber (SMF)

Singlemode fiber optic cable has a small core diameter, typically around 9 microns. It is designed to carry a single
ray of light, or mode, and is used for longdistance, highbandwidth applications. Singlemode fiber optic cable can
transmit data at speeds up to 10 Gbps and can carry signals over distances of up to 100 kilometers without the
need for signal repeaters. It is commonly used in telecommunications networks, data centers, and other
highbandwidth applications.

[Link] MultiMode Fiber (MMF)

Multimode fiber optic cable has a larger core diameter, typically around 5062.5 microns. It is designed to carry
multiple modes of light, which can result in higher dispersion and attenuation compared to singlemode fiber.
Multimode fiber optic cable is generally used for shorter distances, typically up to a few hundred meters, and is
commonly used in LANs, video surveillance, and other lowtomedium bandwidth applications.
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The following are some of the features of fiber optic cable:

1. High bandwidth: Fiber optic cable has a much higher bandwidth than other types of transmission media,
allowing it to support highspeed data transfer rates of up to 100 Gbps or more.

2. Immunity to interference: Fiber optic cable is not affected by electromagnetic interference, making it ideal for
use in environments where other types of cable may be susceptible to interference.

3. Immunity to noise: Fiber optic cable is immune to noise and is not affected by electrical interference from other
devices.

4. Immunity to tapping: Fiber optic cable is difficult to tap or intercept, making it a secure transmission medium for
sensitive data.

5. Longdistance transmission: Fiber optic cable can transmit data over long distances, up to tens of kilometers,
without degradation in signal quality.

6. Durability: Fiber optic cable is robust and resistant to physical damage, making it ideal for use in harsh
environments.

7. Cost: While fiber optic cable can be more expensive than other types of transmission media, it is a costeffective
solution for highspeed data transfer over long distances.

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4.2 Wireless/unbounded Media

Wireless media in computer networks refers to the use of radio waves or other electromagnetic waves to transmit
data, voice, or video signals between two or more devices without the use of physical cables. This type of
communication is commonly referred to as wireless networking. Wireless media can be used for a wide range of
applications, including local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks
(WANs). Some popular examples of wireless media include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks.
Wireless media provides users with a more flexible, convenient, and costeffective way to connect devices and
exchange data compared to wired solutions.

4.2.1 Why wireless media?

There are several reasons why people choose to use wireless networks, some of the most common ones include:

1. Convenience: Wireless networks provide users with the ability to connect devices and exchange data without
the need for physical cables. This makes it easier to connect devices and access the internet from multiple
locations within a given area.

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2. Mobility: Wireless networks allow users to connect devices on the go, such as smartphones, laptops, and
tablets, which provides a high level of mobility and flexibility.

3. Costeffectiveness: Setting up a wireless network can be less expensive compared to traditional wired networks,
especially in larger buildings or facilities where it may be difficult to lay down physical cables.

4. Scalability: Wireless networks can be easily scaled to accommodate the growing needs of a business or
organization.

5. Increased Productivity: Wireless networks allow employees to work from any location within the network’s
coverage area, which can increase productivity and flexibility.

6. Compatibility: Wireless networks are compatible with a wide range of devices and operating systems, making it
easier for users to connect and exchange data.

7. Increased Efficiency: Wireless networks can provide a faster and more reliable connection compared to
traditional wired networks, which can help to increase overall network efficiency and reduce downtime.

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4.2.2. Technologies

There are several technologies used for wireless communication. Some of the most common technologies are:

i. Satellite
Satellite technology uses a network of satellites orbiting the Earth to provide communication over long distances.
Satellite communication is commonly used in areas where wired communication is not possible or practical, such
as in remote locations or at sea.

ii. WiFi
WiFi technology uses radio waves to provide wireless highspeed internet and network connections over short
distances. WiFi is commonly used in homes, businesses, and public places such as cafes and airports.

iii. Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses shortrange radio waves to connect devices such as smartphones, laptops, and
speakers. Bluetooth is commonly used for personal communication and entertainment.

iv. Microwave
Microwave technology uses highfrequency radio waves to transmit data over long distances. It is commonly used
for pointtopoint communication in telecommunications networks.

V. Radio Wave
Radio wave technology uses lowfrequency radio waves to transmit data over long distances. It is commonly used
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4.3 Wireless communication with LANs?
Wireless communication with LANs, or Local Area Networks, refers to the use of wireless media for connecting
devices within a limited geographic area, such as a building or a campus. In this type of network, multiple
devices can communicate with each other and access the internet through a wireless access point (AP) that
serves as a bridge between the wireless network and a wired network, such as the internet.
4.3.1. Introduction
Wireless communication with LANs refers to the use of wireless technology to connect devices to a local area
network (LAN). This allows devices such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets to connect to the network without
the need for physical cables.

Wireless LANs (WLANs) are becoming increasingly popular in homes, offices, and public spaces, as they offer
flexibility and mobility. WLANs use wireless access points (APs) to provide wireless connectivity to devices.

4.3.2. Wireless Switches / Hub

Wireless switches or hubs are used to manage and control wireless access points in a WLAN. They provide a
central point for configuring and monitoring the WLAN, and can also be used to manage user access and security
settings.

Wireless switches or hubs are similar to wired switches or hubs, but they provide additional features specifically
designed for wireless networks. For example, they can be used to manage the roaming of devices between
different access points in the network.

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4.3.3. Wireless NIC
A wireless network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component that is used to connect a device to a WLAN. It
allows the device to communicate with wireless access points and other devices on the network.

Wireless NICs can be built into devices such as laptops and smartphones, or they can be added externally using
a USB adapter. They use radio waves to communicate with access points and can operate at different frequencies
and speeds, depending on the technology used.

Wireless NICs also have different security protocols that are used to secure wireless communication. The most
common security protocols used in WLANs are WiFi Protected Access (WPA) and WPA2, which provide
encryption and authentication to prevent unauthorized access to the network.

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Chapter 5

OSI Model

5.1 OSI Model

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)
is a conceptual framework that defines how information
should be transmitted between different devices on a
computer network. It was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as
a way to standardize communication between different
systems and to ensure that data can be transmitted
reliably between different vendors' equipment.

The OSI Model is comprised of seven layers, each of

which is responsible for a different aspect of the
communication process:

TOP/IP Model
Protocols and Services
OSI Model

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5.1.1 Physical Layer

The Physical Layer (layer 1) of the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model is responsible for
transmitting raw bits over a physical medium such
as a cable or wireless connection. It is responsible
for defining the electrical, mechanical, procedural,
and functional specifications for activating,
maintaining, and deactivating the physical link
between end systems.

The Physical Layer specifies the physical

characteristics of the communication such as
voltage levels, cable specifications, and timing of
voltage changes. It also defines the physical
connectors, and cable specifications and specifies
the methods of transmitting bits over the physical
medium.

The Physical Layer provides a reliable and

standardized method for transmitting and receiving
data and it is the lowest layer of the OSI model,
providing a foundation for the higher layers to build
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5.1.2 Data Link Layer:

The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Model and is responsible for the reliable transfer of data
over a physical link between two devices. This layer deals with the
transmission of data between two devices connected by a physical link,
such as a cable or wireless connection.

The Data Link Layer is responsible for the following tasks:

Framing: Breaking down the data received from the Network Layer into
smaller frames for transmission over the physical link.

Error Detection and Correction: Checking for errors in the data frames and
correcting them if necessary.

Flow Control: Ensuring that data is transmitted at a rate that the receiver
can handle.

Access Control: Deciding which device has the right to use the physical link
at a given time.

Media Access Control (MAC): Managing the communication between

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 5.1.4 Transport Layer
5.1.3 Network Layer
The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI
The Network Layer is responsible for routing data
(Open Systems Interconnection). Model, responsible for
from its source to its destination or from one
endtoend data transmission and error checking. It
network to another. It determines the best path
provides reliable and efficient data transfer between
for data to travel from source to destination, and
applications on different hosts. The main functions of
it also provides a method for addressing network
the Transport Layer are:
devices.
This layer is responsible for the delivery of data
Segmentation: Breaking down large data into smaller
packets across multiple networks, and it ensures
units called segments for efficient transmission.
that data is transmitted accurately and reliably.
The Network Layer provides routing services,
Flow Control: Managing the flow of data between the
flow control, and congestion control. It also
sender and receiver to prevent data loss or overflow.
provides end to end error detection and
correction, and it ensures that data is transmitted
Error Detection and Correction: Ensuring that the data
without duplication or loss. The Network Layer
is transmitted accurately and detecting and correcting
protocols include IP (Internet Protocol), IPX
any errors that may occur.
(Internetwork Packet Exchange), and AppleTalk.
Connection Management: Establishing, maintaining,
and releasing connections between applications to
ensure
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5.1.5 Session Layer
The Session Layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is responsible for
managing the flow of data between two applications. It acts as a control center for
maintaining the relationship between the applications and ensures that data is sent and
received in the correct order.

The main functions of the Session Layer are:

Establishing and maintaining a session: The Session Layer establishes a communication

session between two applications and coordinates the exchange of data.
Synchronization: The Session Layer ensures that data is transmitted in the correct
sequence, so that the receiving application can process it properly.
Error detection and correction: The Session Layer detects and corrects errors that may
occur during the data transfer.
Terminating a session: The Session Layer also terminates the communication session
between two applications when it is no longer needed.

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5.1.6 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is the sixth
layer in the model and is responsible for providing a common format for the data that is
transmitted between applications on different devices. This layer is responsible for the
data representation, data encryption, and data compression. It acts as an intermediary
between the application layer and the session layer.

The main functions of the presentation layer include:

Data Formatting: This layer is responsible for converting the data into a format that is
usable by both the sending and receiving devices.
Data Encryption: The presentation layer provides data encryption services to protect the
data during transmission.
Data Compression: This layer is responsible for compressing the data to reduce the
amount of data that needs to be transmitted over the network.
Data Translation: The presentation layer can translate data from one format to another if
necessary.

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5.1.7 Application Layer
The Application Layer is the seventh and highest layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Model. It is the topmost layer that directly interacts with the user and
supports application and enduser processes.

The main function of the Application Layer is to provide endusers with the ability to
access network resources and services, such as file transfers, email, database access,
and the World Wide Web.

It provides a common interface between the endusers and the network, abstracting the
underlying network technology.

The Application Layer includes protocols that define the communication between
applications, such as HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, and Telnet. It also supports user
authentication, encryption, and data compression.

Examples of applications that operate at the Application Layer include web browsers,
email clients, and remote access tools.
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5.2. TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a conceptual model
used for internet communication. It consists
of four layers, each responsible for different
aspects of network communication:

5.2.1. Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for
providing services to user applications. This
layer interacts directly with the user and the
user's application software, and provides
protocols for services such as file transfer,
email, and web browsing. Examples of
protocols that operate at the application layer
include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and Telnet.

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5.2.2. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for providing endtoend communication services
between applications. This layer provides reliable and efficient data transfer between
devices on the network. The two most commonly used transport layer protocols are TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
TCP provides reliable, connectionoriented communication between devices, while UDP
provides a faster, connectionless communication service.

5.2.3. Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for routing packets across multiple networks. It provides
logical addressing, and routing services, and is responsible for ensuring that packets are
delivered to their correct destination.
The most commonly used network layer protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP), which
provides the foundation for internet communication. Other protocols that operate at the
network layer include ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) and ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol).

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5.2.4. Physical or LinkLayer
The physical or linklayer is responsible for
transmitting data over the physical medium, such as
copper wires, optical fibers, or wireless signals. This
layer provides protocols for transmitting bits of data
over the physical medium, and includes components
such as network interface cards (NICs), hubs,
switches, and repeaters. Examples of protocols that
operate at the physical or linklayer include Ethernet,
WiFi, and Bluetooth.
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Chapter 6

IP Addresses

6.1 IP Address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical identifier assigned to every device
that is connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves
as the device's address on the internet, allowing other devices to find and communicate
with it.

6.1.1 Why we use IP Addresses

We use IP addresses to uniquely identify devices on a network and enable communication
between them. Without IP addresses, it would be impossible to send data between devices
on the internet, as there would be no way to know where to send the data.

6.2. IPv4
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol, which is the
set of rules that governs how data is transmitted over the internet. IPv4 uses 32bit
addresses, which allows for a maximum of approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.

6.2.1 Classes of IPv4 addresses

IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes, each of which is characterized by the size of
the network and the range of IP addresses it can contain. The five classes of IP addresses
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Class A: Class A IP addresses are used for large networks and are capable of supporting up to 126 separate
networks, each with up to 16 million hosts. Class A IP addresses use the first octet (8 bits) to identify the network,
and the remaining three octets (24 bits) to identify individual hosts. The first bit of a Class A IP address is set to 0,
and the range of Class A IP addresses is from [Link] to [Link].

Class B: Class B IP addresses are used for mediumsized networks and are capable of supporting up to 16,384
separate networks, each with up to 65,536 hosts. Class B IP addresses use the first two octets (16 bits) to identify
the network, and the remaining two octets (16 bits) to identify individual hosts. The first two bits of a Class B IP
address are set to 10, and the range of Class B IP addresses is from [Link] to [Link].

Class C: Class C IP addresses are used for small networks and are capable of supporting up to 2,097,152
separate networks, each with up to 254 hosts. Class C IP addresses use the first three octets (24 bits) to identify
the network, and the remaining octet (8 bits) to identify individual hosts. The first three bits of a Class C IP address
are set to 110, and the range of Class C IP addresses is from [Link] to [Link].

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Class D: Class D IP addresses are used for multicast applications and are capable of addressing a group of hosts
simultaneously. Class D IP addresses use the first four bits set to 1110, and the range of Class D IP addresses is
from [Link] to [Link].

Class E: Class E IP addresses are reserved for future use and are not used for public IP addresses. The range of
Class E IP addresses is from [Link] to [Link].

6.3 Introduction to IPv6 Addresses

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the latest version of the Internet Protocol and is designed to replace IPv4,
which has been in use for decades. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and written as eight sets of hexadecimal
numbers separated by colons, such as
2001:0db8:$5a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. This allows for a much larger number of unique IP addresses to be
assigned compared to IPv4, which only has 32 bits and can support up to 4.3 billion unique addresses.

6.3.1 Why IPv6 was introduced?

IPv6 was introduced to overcome the limitations of the current version of IP, IPv4. IPv4 has a limited address
space, which means that it can only support a limited number of devices on the internet. With the rapid growth of
the internet and the increasing number of devices connected to it, the need for a larger address space became
apparent.

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IPv6 was designed to provide a much larger address space than IPv4.
This increased address space allows for more devices to be connected to
the internet, as well as enabling new services and applications that were
not possible with IPv4.

IPv6 also offers other improvements over IPv4, including better security,
improved routing, and better support for mobile devices.

6.3.2 IPv6 address length (i.e. 128 bits)

IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length, which is four times longer than
IPv4 addresses. This increased address space allows for approximately
340 undecillion unique addresses, which is more than enough to support
the growth of the internet for the foreseeable future.

IPv6 addresses are represented in hexadecimal notation, with each 16bit

segment separated by a colon. For example, an IPv6 address might look
like this: 2001:0db8:$5a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

IPv6 also includes a feature called address autoconfiguration, which

allows devices to automatically generate their own IP addresses without
the need for a DHCP server. This simplifies network configuration and
management, especially for mobile devices.

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Chapter 7

Protocols

7.1 Definition
A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that govern the communication between
devices on a network. It defines the format, timing, sequencing, and error control of
data transmission over a network.

Protocols are essential for enabling devices to communicate with each other and
share data effectively and efficiently. Without protocols, devices would not be able to
understand each other and would not be able to communicate over a network.

7.2 Types
There are different types of protocols used in networking, including:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet

Protocol (IP), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP),
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Domain Name System (DNS)

These protocols are used for various purposes, such as data transmission, network
management, web browsing, file sharing, and more
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7.3 Routed Protocols
Routed protocols are a set of protocols used in computer networks to route data packets between
different networks. Routed protocols define the rules for moving data packets between networks and
ensure that data is transmitted in an efficient and reliable manner. Examples of routed protocols include:

7.3.1 Internet Protocol (IP):

IP is a routed protocol that is used to transport data between different networks on the Internet and other
IPbased networks. It provides the means to route data packets

between networks and ensure that data is transmitted in an efficient and reliable manner. IP operates at
the network layer of the OSI model and is responsible for addressing and routing data packets between
networks.

7.3.2 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX): IPX is a routed protocol that was widely used in the 1980s and
1990s for computer networking. It was used to transport data between networks, particularly in Novell
NetWare networks. IPX operates at the data link layer and network layer of the OSI model and provides
the means to route data packets between networks.

7.3.3 AppleTalk: AppleTalk is a routed protocol that was developed by Apple Computer for use in its
Macintosh computers. It was used for local area networking and provided the means to transport data
between networks and computers running Apple Macintosh operating systems. AppleTalk operates at the
data link layer and network layer of the OSI model and provides the means to route data packets between
networks.
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7.4 Routing Protocols

Routing protocols, on the other hand, are the protocols used by routers to exchange information about network
destinations and to determine the best path for forwarding data packets. Routing protocols are used by routers to
build and maintain routing tables, which are used to make forwarding decisions for data packets. There are
several types of routing protocols, including:

7.4.1 Interior Gateway Routing Protocols (IGPs): These are routing protocols used within a single autonomous
system, such as a single organization's network. Examples of IGPs include Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
7.4.2 Exterior Gateway Routing Protocols
(EGPs): These are routing protocols used to
exchange routing information between different
autonomous systems, such as between
different organizations' networks. The most
widely used EGP is Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP).

7.4.3 Distance Vector Routing Protocols: These

protocols determine the best path to a network
destination based on a metric such as hop
count. RIP is an example of a distance vector
routing protocol.
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7.4.4 LinkState Routing Protocols: These protocols Differences:
maintain a complete map of the network and determine
the best path to a network destination based on the 1. Purpose: Routed protocols are used to transport data
state of the network. OSPF is an example of a linkstate between networks, while routing protocols are used to
routing protocol. exchange information about network destinations and
determine the best path for forwarding data packets.
7.4.5 Hybrid Routing Protocols: These protocols
combine aspects of distance vector and linkstate 2. Nature of information exchanged: Routed protocols
routing protocols. define the rules for moving data packets between
networks, while routing protocols exchange information
Routed vs routing protocols about network destinations and the state of the
network.
Routed protocols and routing protocols are related but
distinct concepts in computer networking. 3. Scope: Routed protocols are used to transport data
between different networks, while routing protocols are
Similarities: used within a single network or between multiple
networks.
1. Both routed protocols and routing protocols play an
important role in ensuring the efficient and reliable
operation of computer networks.

2. Both types of protocols are used by routers to

exchange information and make forwarding decisions
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7.5. Common Protocols

7.5.1. TCP/IP
TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that includes the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP).
TCP/IP is the most widely used protocol suite in the world, and it is used for communication over the internet and
most local area networks (LANs).

TCP provides reliable, connectionoriented communication between applications, ensuring that data is transmitted
in the correct order and without errors. IP is responsible for addressing and routing packets between devices on a
network.

7.5.2. UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that is used for sending datagrams (packets) over a
network. UDP is faster and less reliable than TCP; as it does not provide error checking, flow control, or
retransmission of lost packets.

UDP is used for applications that require realtime communication, such as online gaming, video conferencing, and
voiceoverIP (VoIP).

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7.5.3. FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a protocol used for transferring files over a
network. FTP is a clientserver protocol, with the client sending requests for files
and the server responding with the requested files.

FTP is commonly used for uploading and downloading files from remote servers,
such as websites or file repositories.

7.5.4. HTTPS
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is a protocol used for secure
communication over the internet. HTTPS is a combination of HTTP and
SSL/TLS encryption protocols, providing secure, encrypted communication
between web servers and clients.

HTTPS is used for secure online transactions, such as online banking,

ecommerce, and secure login pages.

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