Chapter 2 Exercise questions: Answers

2.1 Individuals and populations, communities and ecosystems

1. species: a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
population: a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the
same time, and which are capable of interbreeding
habitat: the location in which a community, species, population or organism lives
niche: describes the particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources upon
which an organism or a population depends/the role of a species in an ecosystem,
and can be described as where, when and how an organism lives

2. A habitat is the location of a species, population or organism, whereas a niche is the

role of a species in an ecosystem; habitat describes how the environment affects a
species, whereas niche defines how a species affects the environment.

3. Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit (e.g., coral),

whereas parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits at the
expense of the other/one species benefits whereas the other is harmed (e.g.,
tapeworms).
Accept any other valid examples.

4. An S-shaped population curve shows low initial population size followed by rapid
growth (exponential growth), leading to slower growth until a plateau is
reached/population fluctuates around a set point/carrying capacity.

Description Explanation
population numbers few individuals colonize a new area; because numbers of
are low leading to low individuals are low, birth rates are also low
birth rates (lag phase)
population grows at limiting factors are not restricting the growth of the
an increasingly rapid population; there are favourable abiotic components, such
rate (exponential as temperature and rainfall, and a lack of predators or
growth phase) disease; the numbers of individuals rapidly increase as
does the rate of growth
population growth limiting factors begin to affect the population and restrict its
slows down growth; there is increased competition for resources; an
considerably although increase in predators and an increase in disease and
continuing to grow mortality due to increased numbers of individuals living in a
(transitional phase) small area also cause a slowdown in growth rate
population growth limiting factors restrict the population to its carrying
stabilizes (the graph capacity (K); changes in limiting factors, predation,
‘flattens’) and then disease, and abiotic factors cause populations to increase
population fluctuates and decrease around the carrying capacity
around a level that
represents the
carrying capacity
(stationary phase)

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 5.
a) Herbivory/predation/parasitism/mutualism/disease/competition.
b) Predator–prey interactions are often controlled by negative feedback
mechanisms that control population densities; in the relative absence of the
predator (due to a limited prey population), the population of prey begins to
increase in size; as the availability of prey increases, there is an increase in
predator numbers, after a time-lag; as the number of predators increases, the
population size of the prey begins to decrease, again after a time-lag; with fewer
prey, the number of predators decreases again; with fewer predators, the number
of prey may begin to increase again and the cycle continues; this is an example
of negative feedback; the process controls densities of both predator and prey
populations.

6. Carrying capacity is the average size of a population determined by competition for

limited resources; limiting factors are factors that can significantly impact population
size; for plants, limiting factors include e.g., nutrients/water/carbon
dioxide/temperature; for animals, limiting factors include e.g.,
space/food/mates/nesting sites/water/predation/ territorial space/disease; populations
have an upper level or extent to the numbers that can be sustained in a given
environment; populations will grow when there are few limiting factors; carrying
capacity is the term used to describe the maximum number of individuals of a
species that can be sustained by an environment; the carrying capacity represents
the population size at which environmental limiting factors limit further population
growth.

7.
a)

1200
Aabove ground biomass / g m–2

1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Year

Low nitrogen, high seed density Low nitrogen, low seed density
High nitrogen, high seed density High nitrogen, low seed density

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 b) Experiments with high seed density had the greatest increase in biomass from
years 1 to 3; between years 3 and 4, above ground biomass decreased to zero
in both experiments with high seed density; above ground biomass in soils with
high seed density recovered and increased between years 4 and 6; soils with
high nitrogen produced greater above ground biomass for both treatments with
high seed density; soils with low seed density produced much lower above
ground biomass over the course of the experiment than those with high seed
density; soils with low seed density and low nitrogen showed steady increase in
above ground biomass between years 1 to 6, whereas the experiment with high
nitrogen (and low seed density) increased to year 3 before decreasing between
years 4 to 6.
c) Soils with high seed density produce greater above ground biomass because
there are a greater number of shoots produced by the greater number of seeds;
soils with greater nitrogen and high seed density produces greater above ground
biomass than soils with lower nitrogen because nitrogen is needed for
growth/[nitrogen needed for protein synthesis, which leads to greater growth];
limiting factors are not restricting the growth of the population; there are
favourable abiotic components (i.e., soil nitrogen); the large increase in growth in
both experiments with high seed density leads to competition between individuals
in the population which causes above ground biomass to decrease between
years 3 and 4; reduction in population size/number of shoots of ticklegrass in
year 4 leads to reduced competition for resources and an increase in population
size/above ground biomass between years 4 and 6; lower seed density in the
other two experiments results in lower above ground biomass because there are
fewer individual plants and, therefore, less biomass produced; in soils with low
seed density, higher levels of nitrogen initially lead to an increased rate of above
ground biomass produced than soil with lower nitrogen because nitrogen is
needed for plant growth; however, between years 3 and 6, the above ground
biomass in soils with high nitrogen and low seed density gradually decreases,
possibly nitrogen is in excess for the seed density present and so has a toxic
effect/nitrogen inhibits growth in ticklegrass in soils with high nitrogen but low
seed density.

8. a)
Generation number Population, N Increase in population
N0 1000 –
N1 1200 200
N2 1440 240
N3 1728 288
N4 2074 346
N5 2488 414
N6 2986 498
N7 3583 597
N8 4300 717
N9 5160 860
N10 6192 1032

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 N11 7430 1238
N12 8916 1486
N13 10,699 1783
N14 12,839 2140
N15 15,407 2568

b)
18000

16000

14000

12000
Population (N)

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
N0 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12 N13 N14 N15
Generation number

Graph shows a J-shaped population curve; growth is an increasing or accelerating

rate of growth/growth is initially slow and becomes increasingly rapid and does not
slow down; increasing population leads to further increases; curve indicates that
limiting factors are not restricting the growth of the population/there are plentiful
resources/favourable abiotic components.

9. community: a collection of interacting populations within the ecosystem/communities

comprise several populations that interact in the ecosystem
ecosystem: a community and the physical environment with which it interacts

10. Producers produce food/sugar/glucose, which supports the ecosystem; consumers

eat other organisms; decomposers break down dead organisms/detritus in the
ecosystem.

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 11. e.g.:
Light: A light-meter can be used to measure the light intensity in an ecosystem; the
meter should be held at a standard, fixed height above the ground and read when the
value is steady and not fluctuating.
Temperature: An electronic thermometer with probes (datalogger) allows
temperature to be accurately measured in air, water, and at different depths in soil.
The temperature needs to be taken at a standard depth.
Wind speed: Precise measurements of wind speed can be made with a digital
anemometer, with the device mounted or hand-held; anemometer is held in direction
of wind for fixed period, at a consistent height above ground.
pH: Can be measured using a pH meter or datalogging pH probe; soil pH can be
measured using a soil test kit, where indicator solution is added and the colour
compared to a chart.
Soil moisture: Weighing samples before and after heating in an oven gives the weight
of water evaporated and, therefore, moisture levels; repeated readings should be
taken until no further weight loss is recorded – the final reading should be used; loss
of weight is calculated as a percentage of the starting weight; soil moisture probes
can be used by pushing into soil.
Soil texture: Large particles (pebbles) can be measured individually and the average
particle size calculated; smaller particles can be measured by using a series of
sieves with increasingly fine mesh size/series of sieves with decreasing hole size to
separate out different size of soil particles.
(see also question 13 for discussion of further abiotic factors)

12.

Abiotic factor Evaluation

Light cloud cover changes light intensity, as does shading from plants
or from operator of the light-meter
Temperature problems in data if temperature not taken from consistent depth;
temperature can only be measured for a short period of time (i.e.,
seconds/minutes) using conventional digital thermometers,
whereas dataloggers can be used to measure temperature over
long periods of time (i.e., days/years) and take fluctuations in
temperature into account
Wind speed gusty conditions can lead to large variations in data
pH the meter or probe must be cleaned between readings; each
reading must be taken at the same depth
Soil moisture if soil is too hot when evaporating water, organic content can also
burn off; if probes are used, these need to be cleaned between
readings and can be inaccurate
Soil texture soil texture can be assessed by rubbing a fresh sample of soil
between fingertips (see 5.1.3): this is a very subjective method
and results are likely to vary between individuals; soil texture can
be assessed more accurately by sieving air-dried soil through a
set of sieves with graded meshes

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 Flow velocity readings must be taken from the same depth; water flow can vary
due to rainfall/ice melt
Wave action changes in wave strength during a day and over a monthly period
affects results
Turbidity reflections off water reduce visibility; measurements are
subjective
Dissolved oxygen possible contamination from oxygen in air when using oxygen-
meter

13.
a) Marine ecosystems
• Wave action: Measured using a dynamometer, which measures the force in
the waves.
• Turbidity: A Secchi disc is mounted on a pole or line and is lowered into water
until it is just out of sight, and the disc raised until it is just visible again; the
depth is measured using the scale on the line or pole; the average depth
calculated is known as the Secchi depth.
• Salinity: Can be measured using electrical conductivity (with a datalogger) or
by the density of the water (i.e., the higher the salt content, the higher the
density).
• Temperature (see question 11); light (see question 11).

b) Freshwater ecosystems
• Dissolved oxygen: Oxygen-sensitive electrodes connected to a meter can be
used to measure dissolved oxygen; Winkler titration can be used, which is
based on the principle that oxygen in the water reacts with iodide ions, and
acid can be added to release iodine that can be quantitatively measured.
• Flow velocity: A flow meter is used, which consists of a calibrated propeller
attached to a pole; the impeller is inserted into water just below the surface
and pointed into the direction of flow; repeat readings are taken (at least 3–5)
to ensure accuracy; velocity readings must be taken at the same depth.
• Temperature (see question 11); light (see question 11); pH (see question 11).

c) Terrestrial ecosystems
• Soil mineral content: Soil samples are heated to high temperatures (500–
1000 °C) for several hours to allow volatile substances (i.e., ones that can
evaporate) to escape. The loss of mass is equivalent to the quantity of volatile
substances present. The temperature and heating required may depend on
the mineral composition of the soil, but there are no standard methods. The
same conditions should be used when comparing samples.
• Soil moisture (see question 11); soil texture (see question 11); wind speed
(see question 11); temperature (see question 11); light (see question 11); pH
(see question 11).

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 14. e.g., dichotomous key for identifying a selected group of animals (animals: spider,
beetle, monkey, gibbon, rhinoceros, eagle, snake, frog, leopard, butterfly, kangaroo
and dolphin).
1 a Animal is a vertebrate go to 4
b Animal is an invertebrate go to 2
2 a Animal has fewer than 8 legs go to 3
b Animal has 8 legs spider
3 a Animal has two hardened wing cases beetle
b Animal does not have modified wings butterfly
4 a Animal is warm blooded (endothermic) go to 6
b Animal is cold blooded (ectothermic) go to 5
5 a Animal has legs frog
b Animal does not have legs snake
6 a Animal is adapted for life in water dolphin
b Animal is not adapted for life in water go to 7
7 a Animal has wings eagle
b Animal does not have wings go to 8
8 a Animal has a placenta go to 9
b Animal does not have a placenta kangaroo
9 a Animal has fur go to 10
b Animal does not have fur rhinoceros
10 a Animal has claws on feet leopard
b Animal does not have claws on feet go to 11
11 a Animal has a tail monkey
b Animal does not have a tail gibbon

Evaluation: correct identification needs some level of expertise (e.g., whether wings
are modified or not)/terminology can be difficult; some features cannot be established
by using external features e.g., whether an animal has a placenta or not/whether an
animal is endothermic or ectothermic.

15. The method of sampling/capture must not harm or injure the animal; marking
methods should be non-harmful to animal, i.e., non-toxic; marking methods must be
non-conspicuous, so that the animals are not easier to see by predators.

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 16. HL The fundamental niche describes the full range of conditions and resources in
which a species could (theoretically) survive and reproduce whereas the realized
niche describes the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists due to
biotic interactions; e.g., the realized niche of the barnacle Semibalanus (Balanus)
balanoides is the same as its fundamental niche i.e., the middle and lower intertidal
area of a rocky shore; the realized niche of the barnacle Chthamalus stellatus is the
upper intertidal area of the shore, whereas its fundamental niche is both upper and
middle shores; the realized niche of Chthamalus is smaller than its fundamental
niche due to interspecific competition leading to competitive exclusion.

17. HL Cladograms provide natural classification, which helps in the identification of

species; allows the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group; a
clade illustrates evolutionary relationships in which all the members of a taxonomic
group have evolved from a common ancestor; cladograms distinguish similarities that
are based on shared ancestry (homologous structures) rather than those based on
structures that have evolved independently but under similar selective pressures and
so appear the same or similar (analogous structures, e.g. human and octopus eyes).

18. HL Species can be classified according to how rapidly they reproduce and the
degree to which they give parental care; species characterized by periods of rapid
growth followed by decline tend to inhabit unpredictable, rapidly changing
environments (i.e., early seral stages in a succession); these species have a fast rate
of increase (r) and are called r-strategists or r-species; slow-growing organisms tend
to be limited by the carrying capacity of an environment (K), and are known as K-
strategists or K-species; K-strategists inhabit stable environments; r- and K-strategist
species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to pioneer and climax
communities respectively; species characterized as r-strategists produce many, small
offspring that mature rapidly/receive little or no parental care (e.g., cockroaches and
other insects); K-strategists produce very few, often very large offspring that mature
slowly and receive much parental support (e.g., elephants and whales); as a result of
the low birth rate, K-strategists are vulnerable to high death rates and extinction.

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2.2 Energy and biomass in ecosystems

19. Photosynthesis:

Transfers: movement/diffusion of carbon dioxide and water into cell;

movement of glucose from cell to rest of plant; movement/diffusion of
oxygen from plant
Transformation: conversion of sunlight energy to chemical energy in glucose/
light energy transformed into chemical energy in biomass

Cellular respiration:

Transfers: movement of glucose into cell; movement/diffusion of oxygen into cell;

movement/diffusion of carbon dioxide and water from cell
Transformation: conversion of chemical energy/glucose into movement/energy
to support life processes/heat

20. Not all available sunlight energy is converted to glucose/biomass by photosynthesis;

some light is reflected; some light is an unsuitable wavelength for photosynthesis;
transmitted light goes through leaf and is not absorbed by chlorophyll; the second law
of thermodynamics states that energy transfers are inefficient/when energy is
transformed, some must be degraded into a less useful form, e.g., heat; some energy
is lost during the process of photosynthesis; energy is lost from the system at each
stage of a food chain, ultimately as heat energy through cellular respiration; not all
the food available to a given trophic level is harvested, e.g., sheep eat the leaves of
grass but not the roots; not all that is harvested is consumed, e.g., the bones and
teeth of animals are not usually eaten; not all that is consumed is absorbed, e.g.,
parts of the food that cannot be digested such as the cellulose in plant matter; not all
that is absorbed is stored; e.g., some is lost as heat through cellular respiration;
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 energy losses mean that not all of the energy in biomass is made available to the
next tropic level.

21.

The width of the arrows is proportional to the quantity of energy transferred; boxes
indicate stores of energy, with size of box approximately indicating relative quantities
of biomass; producers convert energy from sunlight into new biomass through
photosynthesis; heat is released to the environment through cellular respiration; the
quantity of biomass/stored energy at each trophic level decreases through food chain
due to loss of energy (ultimately as heat).

22. A pyramid of biomass represents the biological mass of the standing stock at each
trophic level at a particular point in time, whereas a pyramid of energy shows the flow
of energy (i.e. the rate at which the stock is being generated) through each trophic
level of a food chain over a period of time; pyramid of biomass is measured in grams
of biomass per square metre (g m–2 or J m–2), whereas a pyramid of energy is
measured in units of flow (g m–2 yr–1 or J m–2 yr–1); pyramids of biomass can be
inverted i.e., have lower biomass in producers than in primary consumers whereas
pyramids of energy are always pyramid shaped (indicating loss of energy through the
food chain).

23. Farmers often use pesticides to improve crop yield and to maximize profits; non-
biodegradable pesticides include, e.g., DDT; the producers/algae/plants or grass are
the first accumulators as they take in the DDT; organisms in the second trophic level
(primary consumers) consume the DDT-containing producers and retain the pesticide
in their body tissue (mainly in fat)/pesticide accumulates in body fat and is not broken
down; this process is bioaccumulation; the process continues along the food chain
with more and more DDT being accumulated at each level; top carnivores are the
final destination of the pesticide (the ultimate accumulators); each successive trophic
level supports fewer organisms, so the pesticide becomes increasingly concentrated
in the tissues; this process is biomagnification; organisms higher in the food chain
have progressively longer life spans, so they have more time to accumulate more of
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 the toxin by eating many DDT-containing individuals from lower levels; e.g., decline
of the bald eagle in North America in the 1950s and 1960s; accumulation and
biomagnification of DDT affected the thickness of the eggshell, causing thinning of
birds’ eggshells, resulting in eggs being crushed by parents when incubating.

24. Gross productivity (GP) is the total gain in biomass by an organism; net productivity
(NP) is the amount of biomass (and therefore energy) remaining after losses due to
cellular respiration; primary productivity is productivity/gain in biomass in producers;
secondary productivity is productivity/gain in biomass in consumers.

25. HL Gross primary productivity (GPP) is equivalent to the mass of glucose created by
photosynthesis per unit area per unit time in primary producers; net primary
productivity (NPP) is the gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per
unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R): this is biomass that is
potentially available to consumers in an ecosystem; NPP can be calculated using the
equation: NPP = GPP – R

26. HL Gross secondary productivity (GSP) is the total energy or biomass assimilated by
consumers/the total gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit
time through absorption; GSP is calculated by subtracting the mass of faecal loss
from the mass of food consumed: GSP = food eaten – faecal loss; GSP is the total
energy gained through absorption in consumers; Net secondary productivity (NSP) is
the gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining
after allowing for respiratory losses (R); NSP is calculated by subtracting respiratory
losses (R) from GSP: NSP = GSP – R

27. HL
a) NPP per kg biomass per year in desert biome = 0.003/0.002 = 1.500

b) NPP per kg biomass per year is higher in desert than other biomes; although
productivity/mean NPP is lowest in the desert biome (due to e.g., lack of rainfall
and therefore available water for photosynthesis), overall biomass is also low,
giving a higher value for NPP per kg biomass per year/productivity is high relative
to mean biomass; deserts have low mean biomass and therefore low rates of
respiration, and so overall NPP per kg biomass per year is high relative to other
biomes; due to low NPP in desert, accumulation of biomass is low.
NPP in temperate and tropical grasslands are higher than desert and tundra;
NPP is greater than desert due to greater rainfall in grasslands and, therefore,
higher rates of photosynthesis/productivity; NPP is greater than in tundra due to
greater available water, higher levels of insolation, and warmer temperatures;
NPP is lower in both temperate and tropical grasslands compared to temperate
forest and tropical rainforest; NPP in temperate forest is higher due to, e.g.,
greater rainfall per year; NPP is higher in tropical rainforest (than grassland) due
to higher annual temperatures, greater rainfall and greater insolation throughout
the year.

c) NPP is greater in tropical grassland (savannah) than temperate grassland due to

higher annual temperatures and greater insolation; temperatures vary
more/seasonal variation (e.g., from summer to winter) in temperate grasslands

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 compared to savannahs leading to lower productivity/NPP; the amount of rainfall
is lower in temperate grasslands than savannahs and so NPP is lower; warmer
conditions in savannah produce greater turnover of
biomass/decomposition/decay/more rapid nutrient turnover than temperate
grasslands, leading to greater productivity.

2.3 Biogeochemical cycles

28. Stores (storages) remain in equilibrium with the environment; sinks indicate net
accumulation of the element; sources indicate net release of the element.

29.

Transfers in the carbon cycle include: herbivores feeding on producers; carnivores

feeding on herbivores; decomposers feeding on dead organic matter.
Transformations in the carbon cycle include: photosynthesis, which converts
inorganic materials into organic matter; photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide
and water into glucose using sunlight energy trapped by chlorophyll; cellular
respiration converts organic storage into inorganic matter; respiration transforms

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 organic matter such as glucose into carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere dissolving in rainwater oceans; combustion transforms biomass into
carbon dioxide and water; fossilization transforms organic matter in dead organisms
into fossil fuels through incomplete decay and pressure.

30. Urbanization: Increases the need for energy and, therefore, increases the use of
fossil fuels (increased combustion); this leads to decreased land covered by
vegetation, reducing photosynthesis; increases food requirements, leading to
increased land use for agriculture; increased transport of food leads to greater
energy requirements and increased fossil fuel use.

Deforestation: Carbon storages are reduced as trees are removed; soil erosion is
made worse, leading to the flow of carbon stored in soil into the rivers; a reduction in
photosynthesis and, therefore, less carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere;
increase respiration from decomposers feeding on decaying forest residues.
Agriculture: Increased land use for agriculture rather than native ecosystems, altering
the nature of carbon storage; the carbon storage present in crops is transported to
new locations, altering the carbon cycle on a local and global scale.
Fossil fuel use: Involves the direct burning of a carbon store locked up for millions of
years in geological deposits; mining and burning of fossil fuels reduces the storages
of these non-renewable sources of energy and increases the storage of carbon in the
atmosphere; increased release of greenhouse gases, for example, carbon dioxide,
and therefore warmer average global temperatures; increased carbon dioxide levels
in the atmosphere can lead to increased vegetation growth, due to increased carbon
dioxide available for photosynthesis, altering the carbon cycle.

31. Stores (storages) in biogeochemical cycles remain in equilibrium with the

environment, sinks indicate net accumulation of the element, whereas sources
indicate net release of the element; soils store the key nutrients for plants, e.g.,
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, if output of nutrients from soil (from, e.g., runoff
or removal of biomass) is in balance with inputs; initial soil disturbance can result in
land becoming a carbon source, whereas, as agricultural products, e.g., crops, grow,
it will become a carbon sink before maturing into a carbon store; regenerative
agricultural methods, such as crop rotation, cover crops and no till, will promote the
role of soil as a carbon sink; drainage of wetland, monoculture and heavy tillage will
promote the role of soil as a carbon source; cropping over a longer timescale (e.g.,
timber production) and the subsequent use of harvested products will also affect
these roles.

32. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms hydrogencarbonate and hydrogen
ions, which make the water more acidic/causes ocean acidification; coral reef is
formed by a mutualistic relationship between an animal (polyp) and algae; the polyp
animal secretes a protective skeleton, which forms the reef; coral reefs skeletons are
made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and are, therefore, alkaline; a decrease in pH
can lead to reduced calcification rates of corals and destruction because the acid
reacts with the alkali coral skeleton; small decreases in pH can interfere with calcium

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 carbonate deposition in coral skeletons and aquatic mollusc shells, which are also
made from calcium carbonate.

33. HL Lithosphere: the solid, rocky outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust, the
outermost layer of the mantle and soil; the lithosphere contains carbon stores in fossil
fuels and in rocks such as limestone that contain calcium carbonate.

34. HL Coral polyps and shellfish/shelled animals take (fix) carbon dioxide from the water
and combine it with calcium to form calcium carbonate; limestone is made from
calcium carbonate; limestone is formed by the shells of ancient organisms and corals
being crushed and compressed into sedimentary rock over long time periods; shells
and reef-building coral contain calcium carbonate, and so, when they are fossilized,
limestone is formed; limestone can also be formed by non-biological means/chemical
limestone is formed from the precipitation of calcium carbonate from water into
limestone.

35. HL

Transfers in the nitrogen cycle include: herbivores feeding on producers; carnivores

feeding on herbivores; decomposers feeding on dead organic matter; producers
absorbing minerals (nitrates) through their roots; removal of metabolic waste
products from an organism (excretion).
Transformations in the nitrogen cycle include: lightning transforms nitrogen in the
atmosphere into NO3 (nitrogen fixation); nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen
gas in the soil into ammonium ions (ammonification); plant provides sugars from
photosynthesis that are utilized by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria for the energy they

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 require for nitrogen fixation; nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium ions into nitrite
and then nitrate; denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into nitrogen; decomposers
break down organic nitrogen (protein) into ammonia (deamination); nitrogen from
nitrates is used by plants to make amino acids and protein (assimilation).

36. HL The Haber process is an industrial process that produces ammonia from nitrogen
and hydrogen for use as fertilizer.

Benefits of the Haber process include: it provides ammonia for fertilizers; nitrogen-
based fertilizers provide nitrogen which plants need for growth; using nitrogenous
fertilizers can lead to increased crop yields; increased crop yield has enabled
sufficient food to be produced for the growing global human population; the ammonia
produced can also be used in other processes.
Disadvantages of the Haber process include: soil fertilizers are easily soluble in water
and are, therefore, easily transported from soil to bodies of water by run-off and
leaching, which leads to increased nitrogen in lakes, rivers and other water
resources; this can lead to eutrophication; eutrophication leads to the reduction of
biodiversity in aquatic systems; the Haber process requires high levels of energy,
derived from fossil fuels, which results in high greenhouse gas emissions (e.g.,
carbon dioxide).

2.4 Climate and biomes

37. Weather refers to the specific conditions being experienced at a particular time or
over a short period (including temperature, humidity, air pressure and wind speed),
whereas climate is the average of these conditions over long periods of time, i.e.,
approximately 30 years.

38. Biome: a group of comparable ecosystems that have developed in similar climatic
conditions, wherever they occur/collections of ecosystems sharing similar climatic
conditions.

39. Precipitation, temperature and insolation are major influences on the distribution of
terrestrial biomes; water is needed for photosynthesis, transpiration, and support (cell
turgidity); sunlight (insolation) is required for photosynthesis; photosynthesis is a
chemical reaction, so temperature affects the rate at which it progresses; rates of
photosynthesis determine the productivity of an ecosystem (net primary productivity,
NPP; the more productive a biome, the higher its NPP, and this determines the
structure/function of the biome; rainfall, temperature and insolation determine rates of
photosynthesis, and this determines the structure, function and distribution of
biomes; for any given temperature and rainfall pattern, one natural ecosystem type is
likely to develop.

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 40.
Biome Precipitation Temperature Insolation Mean net
primary
productivity
(NPP) /
kg m–2 yr–1
Tropical 2500 mm yr–1; ca. 26 °C average; year-round high 2.20
rainforest high rainfall and temperature warm insolation;
warm throughout year, canopy intercepts
temperatures lead with no seasonal the majority of
to high productivity fluctuations sunlight so limiting
/NPP; in lower layers
poor soil, so heavy (e.g., ground)
rainfall leaches the
nutrients from soil
Temperate 1500 mm yr–1; 10 °C average, but seasonal, with long 1.20
deciduous if there is not with large range sunny days in
woodland enough rainfall, between winter and summer and short
temperate forests summer (e.g., –30 days in winter;
will transform into to +30 °C); reduced levels of
grasslands lower average photosynthesis and
temperatures productivity
reduce levels of compared to a
photosynthesis and tropical rainforest
productivity
compared to tropical
rainforest
Hot desert 250 mm yr–1; very hot year-round very 0.003
rainfall may be temperatures in day high insolation;
unevenly (e.g., 49 °C) but organisms adapt to
distributed; cold at night (e.g., high levels of
lack of water limits 10 °C); insolation and hot
photosynthesis; organisms have to temperatures by
sparse vegetation overcome living underground
fluctuations in
temperature,
making surviving
difficult; leads to low
biodiversity
Tundra 250 mm yr–1; can be below 0 °C very low; short day 0.14
very low for 6–10 months of length; lack of
temperatures the year, e.g., in the photosynthesis;
create permafrost, region north of the lack of vegetation
leading to poor Arctic Circle; mean and low biodiversity
conditions for temperature of the
growth of warmest month is
vegetation/low less than 10 °C;
water availability
recycling of
for plants
nutrients is low,
leading to the
formation of peat
bogs where carbon
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 is stored; low life
activity; permafrost
leads to reduction in
available water and
inhospitable
conditions for life;
low biodiversity

41. Tropical rainforests have the highest productivity (NPP), whereas hot deserts have
the lowest; tropical rainforests lie in a band around the equator within the tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn (23.5° N and S) where there are constant high levels of
insolation throughout the year; there is little seasonal variation in sunlight and
temperature providing an all-year growing season in tropical rainforests, and so NPP
is high; their position in low latitudes, with the Sun directly overhead, determines their
climatic conditions, and enables high levels of photosynthesis and high rates of NPP
throughout the year; hot deserts are found in bands at latitudes of approximately 30°
N and S, where dry air descends having lost water vapour over the tropics; hot
deserts are characterized by high temperatures at the warmest time of day (typically
45–49 °C) in early afternoon and low precipitation (typically under 250 mm yr–1);
rainfall may be unevenly distributed and occur rarely; the lack of water limits rates of
photosynthesis and so rates of NPP are very low; decomposition levels are low
because of the dryness of the air and lack of water, which also reduces productivity.

42. Increases in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases lead to an increase in mean
global temperature which affects rainfall patterns; temperature and rainfall affect the
location and composition of biomes and so climate change affects the distribution of
biomes; models suggest a north/south shift in biomes relative to the equator (a
latitudinal shift) due to climate change; biomes will move up slopes (altitudinal shift),
e.g., on mountains; low-lying biomes such as mangroves may be lost due to changes
in sea level.

43. HL Climate types include tropical (seasonal and equatorial), temperate (maritime and
continental) and polar.

44. HL El Niño interrupts Walker circulation/normal east–west circulation; under normal

conditions, winds blow offshore causing upwelling of the cold, rich waters, with warm
surface water pushed into the western Pacific; normally, sea surface temperatures
(SSTs) in the western Pacific are over 28 °C, creating an area of low pressure and
producing high rainfall, whereas, by contrast, over coastal South America, SSTs are
lower, high pressure exists and conditions are dry; during El Niño episodes, this
pattern is reversed.
In an El Niño event: the trade winds in the western Pacific weaken and die/there may
even be a reverse direction of flow; the eastern Pacific Ocean becomes 6−8 °C
warmer/water temperatures in the eastern Pacific rise as warm water from the
western Pacific flows eastwards/the piled-up water in the west moves back east,
leading to a 30 cm rise in sea level in Peru; low pressure develops over the eastern
Pacific as water temperature rises, while high pressure takes hold over the western
Pacific; consequently, heavy rainfall occurs over coastal South America; in contrast,
Indonesia and the western Pacific are now warm and dry; not all El Niño events are
the same/there are stronger and weaker events, which may be linked to climate
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 change.

45. HL Rises in ocean temperatures resulting from global warming are increasing the
intensity and frequency of cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons because warmer water
and air have more energy; warmer oceans make hurricanes more likely and more
severe and a warmer atmosphere holds more moisture, increasing the maximum
rainfall; higher sea levels intensify storm surges; scientists predict that with a
warming planet, there will be an increased incidence of hurricanes and typhoons;
available observational evidence in the North Atlantic show that the strongest
hurricanes will be more intense, produce more rainfall, affect new areas, and may be
larger and longer-lived; while global warming is likely making hurricanes more
intense, the change in the number of hurricanes each year is still uncertain and
remains a subject of ongoing research; some conditions favourable for strong
thunderstorms that lead to the formation of tornadoes are expected to increase with
warming, uncertainty exists in other factors that affect tornado formation, e.g.,
changes in the vertical and horizontal variations of winds.

2.5 Zonation, succession and change in ecosystems

46. Both refer to changes in communities in an area; in both, abiotic and biotic factors
affect the composition and change in communities; succession is a temporal
phenomenon/changes in communities over time, whereas zonation is a spatial
phenomenon/changes in communities along an environmental gradient; succession
is the replacement of one community by another in an area, whereas zonation is the
spatial separation of communities from each other; in succession, one community
changes the environmental conditions so another community can colonize the area
and replace the first through competition; e.g., succession on a shingle ridge at
Slapton, south coast of Devon, UK (see details on page 206 of the Student Book);
zonation occurs due to a range of factors, such as changes in elevation, latitude, tidal
level, soil horizons or distance from a water source; e.g., zonation on rocky shores
(see details on page 207 of the Student Book).

47. Successions are divided into a series of stages/seral stages, each with a distinct
community; the first seral stage of a succession is the pioneer community; pioneer
community contains hardy (resilient) species able to withstand difficult conditions;
later communities in a succession are more complex than those that appear earlier;
the final seral stage of a succession is the climax community; a climax community is
more stable than earlier seral stages and is in equilibrium (because it has large
storages of biomass, complex food webs, and the NPP is balanced by rates of
cellular respiration); succession occurs when species change the habitat they have
colonized and make it more suitable for new species/changes in the community of
organisms cause changes in the physical environment that allow another community
to become established and replace the former through competition; increased habitat
diversity results in increased niche complexity; more niches increases species
diversity; increased habitat and species diversity (and genetic diversity) increases
overall biodiversity along a succession.

48. Primary succession is succession occurring on a previously uncolonized substrate

(e.g., rock) where there is no soil or pre-existing community, whereas secondary
succession occurs in places where soil already exists/a previous community has
been destroyed (e.g., after a forest fire)/on bare soil where there has been a pre-
existing community; secondary succession is faster than a primary succession
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 because of the presence of soil and a seed bank.

49.
Feature Climax community
total biomass high
species diversity high
soil conditions deep soil and high humus (detritus) content/high
soil moisture; good mineral conservation
soil structure complex/soil arranged in layers (horizons); high
levels of organic matter; high abundance of soil
animals (e.g., earthworms), which aerate soil
and recycle nutrients
pH soil acidity higher than earlier seral stages
community complexity high/many food chains/complex food web; many
niches available
equilibrium stable/steady-state; flows are still occurring but
inputs are constantly balanced with outputs;
high diversity contributes to resilience and
stability
habitat diversity high/many different habitats, e.g., different
layers of a forest/rivers

50. Environmental variables change along a gradient and so random quadrat sampling is
not appropriate/all parts of the gradient need to be sampled, so a transect is used;
the whole transect can be sampled (a continuous transect) or samples can be taken
at points of equal distance along the transect (an interrupted transect); biotic and
abiotic factors are quicker to measure in interrupted transects but do not sample the
full gradient; continuous transects take longer to study but represent the full
environmental gradient; a line transect can be established using a tape measure laid
out in the direction of the gradient (e.g., on a beach this would be at 90° to the sea)
where organisms touching the tape are recorded; larger (more comprehensive)
samples can be taken using a belt transect/a band of chosen width (usually between
0.5 and 1 m) laid along the gradient; many transects need to be taken to obtain valid
quantitative data; abiotic factors are measured at regular intervals (e.g., every 5 m)
using a standard method (see comment below); biotic factors are measured using
quadrats; quadrats can be used to measure the frequency and abundance of
vegetation and non-motile animals; quadrats are not suitable for sampling motile
(mobile) animals; frame quadrats are empty frames of known area (e.g., 1 m2); grid
quadrats are frames divided into 100 small squares; point quadrats are made from a
frame with 10 holes, inserted into the ground by a leg; percentage cover is an
estimate of the area in a given frame size (quadrat) covered by the plant or animal in
question; percentage frequency is the number of occurrences divided by the number
of possible occurrences; percentage cover and frequency give an estimate of
abundance but not actual population size; a cross staff is used to move a set
distance (e.g., 0.6 m) vertically up the transect, where the staff is set vertically and a
point measured horizontally from an eyesight 0.6 m from the base of the staff.

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 For evaluation of techniques for measuring abiotic variables, see questions 11–13,
subtopic 2.1.

51. HL The P : R ratio is the production : respiration ratio; if production is equal to rate of
respiration, the value of P : R is 1/where P : R is greater than 1, biomass
accumulates/where P : R is less than 1, biomass is depleted/where P : R = 1, a
steady-state community results; GP (gross productivity) is productivity before
respiratory losses, whereas NP (net productivity) is productivity once respiratory
losses have been taken into account; in early stages of succession, GP is low due to
the unfavourable initial conditions and low density of producers; in early stages of
succession, the proportion of energy lost through community cellular respiration is
relatively low too, so NP is high, i.e., the system is growing and biomass is
accumulating; in later stages of succession, with an increased consumer community,
GP may be high in a climax community, although this is balanced by cellular
respiration, so NP approaches zero (P : R ratio approaches 1).

52. HL Plagioclimax is an interrupted succession/where human activity can divert and

change the progression of succession; e.g., burning and deforestation of the Amazon
forest to make grazing land leads to loss of large areas of rainforest, where continued
burning and clearance, and the establishment of grasslands, prevents succession
occurring; e.g., the complete removal of wolves from Yellowstone National Park,
where food chains have been affected by removal of the top carnivore, modifying the
ecosystem; e.g., controlled burning of heather in Europe prevents the re-
establishment of deciduous woodland/heather is burned becomes mature and
facilitate further succession, and so woodland does not develop/diverts the
progression of succession to an alternative stable state so that the original climax
community is not reached. [Any two valid examples]

53. HL

r-species K-species
initial colonizers/pioneer community dominant in later stages of
succession/climax communities
thrive in unstable environments thrive in stable environments
large numbers of a few species diverse range of species
generalist species specialist species
shorter life longer living
smaller in size larger in size
early maturity and reproduction late maturity and delayed reproduction
little or no parental care large amount of parental care
large number of offspring few offspring
little investment in individual offspring high investment in individual offspring
rapid growth and development slow development
J-population growth curve S-population growth curve

54. HL The concept of a climax community has been challenged and there is uncertainty
over what ecosystems would develop naturally were there no human influences; e.g.,
the theory that, without human impacts, closed-canopy forest would predominate in
Central and Western Europe in all locations where trees can grow, has been
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 questioned; an alternative hypothesis suggests that grazing by large ungulates (e.g.,
cattle and horses) would have created a dynamic landscape where forest and more
open areas would alternate through time; this hypothesis (first proposed by Frans
W.M. Vera) is known as the ‘Vera’ wood–pasture hypothesis, where the random
movement of herbivores creates alternative stable states rather than one definitive
climax community; there is debate over the Vera wood–pasture hypothesis regarding
the effects of primary consumers on the plant communities; alternative stable states
occur due to random events, and so the composition of an ecosystem that develops
in an area can be difficult to predict.

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Chapter 2 Practice questions: Answers

1.
a) Presence/absence of wings; presence/absence of legs; number of legs;
presence/absence of antennae/feelers; segmented/non-segmented body. [2 max]
Award [1] for two correct suggestions.
Allow any other reasonable suggestions.

b) Aspects of some organisms change with season/development stage; sexual

variation; only already discovered species can be identified; judgement may be
difficult (subjective)/may require expertise; differences might simply be variations
within a species. [1 max]
Allow any other reasonable response.
[Total 3 marks]

2.
a) Abiotic factors are non-living physical factors; named example of ecosystem
involving physical factors such as temperature/sunlight/pH/salinity/precipitation
etc. [2 max]
Biotic factors are living factors; named example of ecosystem with biotic factors
such as predation/herbivory/parasitism/ mutualism/disease/competition/
producers/consumers/plants/animals, etc. [2 max]
Note: Accept biome name as a named ecosystem. Examples must be given in
context to the named ecosystem. Award 3 max if no ecosystem named.
b) Example diagram: [7 max]

Award 1 mark for every two correctly identified stores of energy (solar/plants/
animals/heat). [2 max]

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 Award 1 mark for every correctly identified transfer or transformation
(photosynthesis/feeding/respiration/decomposition). [4 max]
Award 1 mark for clarity of diagram.
If there is no creditworthy diagram but some verbal explanation, 1 mark can be
given for every two stores identified and each transfer/transformation process up
to a maximum of 4 marks.
[Total 11 marks]

3. Atmospheric/tri-cellular circulation (including Hadley, Ferrel and polar cells) creates

patterns of climate that determine dominant vegetation types; low pressure due to
intense heating/high insolation at the equator causes/rising moist air in the tropics
creates high precipitation giving rise to rainforests; moving polewards (at high
altitude), air cools, becomes denser and sinks, forming a high-pressure zone/
descending/dry air (20–30° latitude/tropics) creates water-limiting/arid conditions
giving rise to deserts; some of the air continues towards the poles to equalize
temperature difference/atmosphere transfers heat from (sub-)tropics to mid-latitudes,
giving rise to temperate biomes; descending/dry air (high latitude/polar regions)
creates water-limiting conditions in tundra; water vapour (from mid-latitudes/
temperate regions) is transferred to high latitudes giving rise to heavy precipitation/
snow in boreal forest; water vapour is transferred from ocean surfaces overland
generating freshwater aquatic systems; prevailing winds/jet streams (blowing from
high to low pressure) bring precipitation to a region, e.g., temperate rainforest in
mountainous regions/riverine/water-margin systems; rain shadow effect of high
mountains causes dry winds in the leeward side, resulting in arid or semi-arid biomes
(e.g., Tibetan Plateau, Mongolian Gobi desert and steppes); atmosphere may be
responsible for shifting biomes due to global warming/climate change.
[Total 4 marks]

4.
a) Correct identification of features [2 max] such as: antlers: horns with one point/
multiple points; antlers: palmate/multiprong/branching; markings: spots on fur/
black markings on face/black markings on tail. [2]

Award 1 mark max for correct format of key. [1]

Do not accept answers relating to bigger/smaller or specific size of deer (which

could be dependent on age of deer).
Do not credit suggestion that Reeves muntjac has no antlers.
Do not credit just ‘skin pattern/pattern on body’.
Accept a dichotomous key with clear yes/no questions and two branches from
each question, leading to the correct deer at each end point or clear question
statements with ‘go-to’ links.
Mark can be achieved for correct format of key even if inappropriate identification
features are chosen.

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 b) The deer population will continue to grow/exceed carrying capacity/would lead to
overpopulation; overgrazing the vegetation/deer would run out of food; leading to
soil erosion in the park/loss of plant biodiversity/death of trees (due to bark
stripping); this will lead to starvation/disease and a population crash. [2 max]

Do not accept only ‘causes instability/causes positive feedback/causes

ecosystem to collapse/causes land degradation/competition for food/food hard to
get/resources are depleted’.
[Total 5 marks]

5.
a)
(i) Primary consumer/herbivore/second trophic level. [1]
(ii) Second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy/disorder of a system
increases over time/conversions/transformations in energy are not 100%
efficient; available energy is lost to environment between trophic levels;
energy is lost as heat from cellular respiration; often only 10% of available
energy is passed on/90% lost between trophic levels/ecological efficiency is
limited; not all parts of the grass/zebra are consumed/absorbed. [2]

b) parasitism/predation/carnivory/disease vector [1]

[Total 4 marks]

6.
a) It is likely to lead to an increase in its prey populations/reindeer/hare/wolves/
lemming/boar; which in turn may lead to decreases in their prey/food
populations/hares/reindeer/lemming/plants/larch/wheatgrass/ bearberry; causing
fluctuations in population size/instability/reduced resilience throughout web. Do
not accept ‘collapse in food chain’. [2]
b) Smaller population will reduce its gene pool/genetic diversity; reducing its
resilience/making it more vulnerable/less adaptable to changes in environment/
disease/resource availability; harder to find a mate/reduce successful pairing/
mating/reproduction/favourable gender ratios; increased rarity in tiger population
may result in an increase in demand/market/trade value (increasing probability of
extinction). Do not accept 'tigers do not reproduce fast'. [2]
[Total 4 marks]

7.
a) Ensure process of capture does not reduce/increase potential for recapture/
generate trap-shy/trap-happy individuals; ensure marking process does not

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 impact individual’s survival; ensure method of marking is durable for period of
investigation; ensure sufficient proportion of population is caught/marked in first
capture; repeat procedure/recapture to increase reliability; ensure traps are well
distributed throughout area of population; ensure sufficient time between
captures to allow mixing of population; only apply procedure to motile species
that do not travel outside study area. [4 max]
b) The slow initial growth rate is due to low numbers reproducing; and/or
unfamiliarity with resources/threats of the newly colonized habitat; growth rates/
numbers increase more rapidly due to abundance/accessibility of resources/
greater numbers reproducing; leading to positive feedback/exponential growth;
growth rate subsequently decrease/numbers increase more slowly due to limiting/
density dependent environmental factors/environmental resistance; e.g., limited
food/greater predation/competition/nesting sites, etc.; growth rate eventually
becomes zero/population stabilizes/fluctuates around carrying capacity; due to
reaching the carrying capacity of the environment; kept stable by density
dependent factors/negative feedback/predator–prey cycles. [7 max]
Note: These marking points may be achieved through an appropriately annotated
diagram.
[Total 11 marks]

8.
a) Distinguish between two named biomes, e.g., tundra vs tropical rainforest:
[3 max]
Tundra has lower insolation/tropical rainforest (TRF) has the highest insolation of
all biomes; TRF has constant insolation throughout the year/tundra has long, dark
winters; tundra has lower mean annual temperature/TRF has warmer
temperatures; tundra has 6–10 months of freezing temperatures/TRF has
constant warm temperatures; TRF has the largest annual precipitation compared
to any biome/tundra precipitation is as low as in deserts; TRF has almost
constant precipitation throughout the year; tundra precipitation mostly in form of
snow/tundra has a characteristic layer of frozen ground below the surface/
permafrost; TRFs have the highest biodiversity of all biomes.
Explanation of distribution: [2 max]
Tundra found at the poles, while TRFs found at the tropics (above and below the
equator); Hadley cell rises at the equator causing huge precipitation (low
pressure zone)/as warm air cools and its moisture condenses; tundra is found in
the low pressure area of polar cell/at a region where there is net loss of solar
energy (causing freezing temperatures)/alpine tundra found on mountaintops,
where temperatures are below 0 most time of the year due to high altitude.
Award [3 max] for correctly identified distinguishing features, i.e., insolation/
temperature/precipitation/permafrost/high biodiversity, etc. Award [2 max] for
explanation of distribution. Award [2 max] overall if no biomes are named.
[Total 4 marks overall for part a)]

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 b) Evaluation of a method for measuring primary productivity: [7 max]

Alternative 1:
Method: light and dark bottle for an aquatic ecosystem; measure dissolved
oxygen at start and end of experiment; compare measurements in a transparent
(with light) and opaque (without light) bottle containing sample of water from
ecosystem; net productivity is equivalent to change in dissolved oxygen in light
bottle; gross productivity is equivalent to change in dissolved oxygen in light
bottle plus the loss of dissolved oxygen in the dark bottle (due to respiration);
measurements taken for a set period of time, e.g., one week.

Evaluation: simple, easy to conduct method; ethical method – samples can be

returned to ecosystem; difficult to isolate primary producers from consumers in
ecosystem sample; only collecting productivity for submerged subset of
ecosystem; measurements dependent upon temperature; quality of
measurements depends on precision of instruments.

Alternative 2:
Method: three comparison plots, one covered in opaque plastic for terrestrial
ecosystem; measure dry biomass at start and end of experiment; compare
measurements from an open (with light) and covered (without light) plot in
ecosystem; net productivity is equivalent to change in biomass in open plot; gross
productivity is equivalent to change in biomass plus the loss of biomass in the
covered plot (due to respiration); measurements taken for a set period of time,
e.g., one week.

Evaluation: easy to isolate primary producers in ecosystem sample; difficult to

collect all biomass; ethical problems as samples need to be killed to measure dry
biomass; measurements dependent upon temperature; productivity easier to
measure in simpler systems; difficult to measure with larger producers/trees.
Award [3 max] for description of method. Evaluation should address inherent
strengths and weaknesses of method. Do not credit examples of poor execution,
e.g., inaccurate measurement/samples too small, etc. Award [6 max] if
ecosystem is not named. No credit can be given to responses that mistakenly
address, e.g., biodiversity rather than productivity.
[Total 11 marks]

9.
a) A food chain with five trophic levels, e.g.: [1]
phytoplankton zooplankton crabs halibut beluga whale
phytoplankton zooplankton shrimp cod beluga whale
phytoplankton zooplankton squid cod beluga whale

Response should indicate the flow of energy from phytoplankton to beluga

whale (e.g., using arrows in the correct direction or words indicating what is

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 eating what).
For beluga whale, accept either beluga or whale.
Do not accept a food chain that includes sun/light.

b) Population in 1920: accept 6000–6300; population in 1940: 2000. [1]

Both responses required for [1].

(6000 − 2000) (6300 − 2000)

c) ( × 100 =) 66.7 %/67 % ; ( × 100 =) 68.2 %/68 %
6000 6300

[1]
Accept answers between 66.67% and 68.25%. Also accept 66.6% recurring.
Accept answers between –66.67% and –68.25% (as it is a percentage
decrease). Units are not required. Only the final answer is required for [1].
Do not accept 66%/66.6% (incorrect rounding).

d) These are persistent toxins that build up in the fatty tissues (and beluga whales
have 40–50% body fat); they are at the top of the food chain (biomagnification
along the food chain); bioaccumulation over a long life span; increasing
concentration of pollutants (bioaccumulation) within the species consumed by
the whale; persistent pollutants accumulate along the food chain due to
decrease of biomass and energy; eat benthic feeders, which assimilate toxins by
scavenging corpses of marine organisms. Do not accept just the terms
‘biomagnification/bioaccumulation’. [3]

e) Isolation is leading to genetic diversity loss and lowered resistance to disease;

small population size may affect reproductive rate/low genetic diversity may
affect the reproductive rate; slow development/late to reach sexual
maturity/produce only a low number of offspring; pollutants bioaccumulating in
fatty tissues interfere with successful reproduction; high levels of pollutants still
found in their habitat, impacting their ability to reproduce effectively/industrial
effluent discharges may kill/harm whales/pollutants could adversely affect food
supply of the whale; shipping causes separation of mother from calf (increasing
number of calf deaths); ships/human activities produce noise that interferes with
feeding behaviour/reproduction in whales; water temperatures rising, moving
outside tolerance of beluga whale food source, reducing food availability;
invasive species may reduce food available for beluga whale; despite being
protected, may get caught in commercial fishing nets and drown; may be killed
in collisions with boats, as the St Lawrence River is an important shipping route;
commercial fishing removing food source/competition for food with commercial
fisheries; there may be illegal hunting of beluga whales. Do not accept only
‘threat of pollution/hunting/due to sport fishing/K-selected species and therefore
slow to recover’. [4]
[Total 10 marks]

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 10. Explanation including the following points: [7 max]
The slow initial growth rate is due to low numbers reproducing; and/or unfamiliarity
with resources/threats of the newly colonized habitat; growth rates/numbers increase
more rapidly due to abundance/accessibility of resources/greater numbers
reproducing; leading to positive feedback/exponential growth; growth rate
subsequently decrease/numbers increase more slowly due to limiting/density-
dependent environmental factors/environmental resistance; e.g., limited food/greater
predation/competition/nesting sites, etc.; growth rate eventually becomes
zero/population stabilizes/fluctuates around carrying capacity; due to reaching the
carrying capacity of the environment; kept stable by density dependent
factors/negative feedback/predator–prey cycles.
These marking points may be achieved through an appropriately annotated diagram.
[Total 7 marks]

11.
a) Habitat is the kind of (biotic and abiotic) environment in which a species normally
lives; e.g., lions live in tropical grasslands; whereas ‘niche’ refers to all the
interactions of a species with its (biotic and abiotic) environment; e.g., the prey
that it eats/its vulnerability to parasites/access to fresh water; habitat may be
shared by many species/niche is more limited to a single species; e.g., different
cat species inhabit tropical grasslands but only lions hunt in groups and so tend
to take larger prey. [4 max]

Award [2 max] if no examples are given. ‘Role of species within ecosystem’

would be acceptable as definition of species, but not ‘job’ which is
anthropomorphic and only addresses impact of species on system, not the
mutual relationship. Accept any relevant/valid/equivalently detailed examples to
those given. Award [1] for each correct answer, up to [4 max].

b) Quadrats can be used for counting/sampling snail/plant populations; need to be

randomly distributed within area of system; total estimated by multiplying mean of
samples by total area/sample area; mark–release–recapture/Lincoln index can be
used for bird/snail species; individuals are caught using traps/nets/bait;
individuals marked by some means that is indelible/harmless/easily visible to
investigators; individuals released/allowed to redistribute before resetting traps;
ratio of marked : unmarked in recapture is recorded and used to estimate total
population; bird populations may be estimated by aerial photographs/birdsong
recordings that allow capture/recapture analysis; bars/histograms proportional to
each total population are drawn. [7 max]

Award [1] for each correct suggestion, up to [7 max]. Accept alternative

procedures of equivalent validity.

[Total 11 marks]

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 12.
a) (primary) succession/colonization (of islands)/lithosere [1]
Do not accept ‘secondary succession’.
b) Select sample areas representative of the area/select sampling sites using
random sampling method/use aerial photographs of the area; do quadrat/transect
based sampling to collect data; record the number of individual plants of each
species/proportion of cover; calculate abundance as percentage
frequency/percentage cover/using ACFOR scale in the quadrats; extrapolate for
the whole volcano; record during different seasons. [3 max]
c) Presence of ash increases plant diversity/different types of volcanic surfaces
affect speed of colonization/weather differently; ash is plant-ready, whereas lava
has to weather before it can support plants; having plants in ash will speed up
weathering of adjacent lava; ash can be nutrient rich enhancing plant
growth/diversity; plant roots can more easily penetrate ash than lava surfaces,
thereby contributing to greater plant diversity; differences in climate/latitude: one
is in tropics and experiences high rainfall/and temperature/insolation/one is in
temperate latitudes with lower rainfall/temperatures/insolation; plants in tropical
rainforest biome grow rapidly all year/conditions can support a wide range of
plant species; plants in temperate latitudes/with less insolation/rainfall/lower
temperatures grow more slowly/conditions support a narrower range of plant
species; the level of biodiversity from nearby areas that are the source of the
colonizing species varies; there is a high level of biodiversity near Krakatau; there
is a lower level of biodiversity near Tarawera; direction of prevailing winds
determine from which areas seeds/species are introduced from; Krakatau is
downwind of areas which are rich in biodiversity; Tarawera is downwind of areas
which have lower levels of biodiversity; development of tourism/human activity in
one area could reduce the number of species; building of
infrastructure/roads/houses/amenities could result in removal of some species.
[4 max]

Award 2 max for identifying two factors and 2 max for explanation of these
factors. Do not accept ‘volcanic eruption happened earlier in Krakatau’ or
difference in latitude/climate without specifying which factors, e.g., higher rainfall.
[Total 8 marks]

13.
a) sun/sunlight/insolation/solar energy [1]
b) (primary) producer/autotrophs/phototrophs/phytoplankton/green plants [1]

The command term ‘State’ requires a ‘specific name’, so do not credit ‘trophic
level 1’.
c) insecticide/pesticide/kill pests/insects/control malarial mosquitoes/plague [1]
d) Bioaccumulation: DDT absorbed by a given trophic level is not broken
down/excreted/is non-biodegradable, so accumulates in tissues. [1]
Biomagnification: The concentration of DDT will increase as it is passed along/up

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 the food chain (because other biomass is lost). [1]

Do not allow simply ‘organisms at higher levels eat/consume more’. Higher

trophic levels do not consume more biomass in a given time than lower trophic
levels.
e)
i) predator-prey/carnivory/predation [1]

Do not credit ‘small fish are eaten/consumed by large fish’.

ii) The predator benefits by gaining food from prey/its population is
limited/stabilized by amount of prey available. [1]

The prey benefits by predators limiting/stabilizing its population/selecting

out weaker/diseased individuals/maintaining healthy gene pool in prey/
reducing competition in prey for available food/resources. [1]

Full marks awarded if response describes negative feedback between

both populations, or indicates that each group regulates population of the
other.
[Total 8 marks]

14.
a) respiration [1]
b) The second law of thermodynamics has energy becoming dispersed, in the
ecosystem/over time there is an increase in entropy; light energy is converted to
chemical energy in plants, with some energy being dispersed in less useful forms
/with an increase in entropy; the chemical energy is passed down the food chain
through eating/consumption; the energy is used in respiration, which releases
some of the energy (in a less useful form) as heat which increases disorder of the
system/increases entropy of the system; 90% of energy is lost as heat with each
transfer; the heat goes back to the atmosphere but is removed/lost from the
ecosystem. [2]

Accept answers that correctly apply the concepts of entropy/energy/heat sources

and sinks. [2 max]
c) Pyramids of numbers display the number of organisms at each trophic level,
whereas pyramids of productivity refer to the flow of energy through a trophic
level (measured in gm/m2/yr or J/m2/yr); pyramids of numbers can sometimes
display different patterns, e.g., an inverted pyramid when individuals at lower
trophic levels are relatively large (e.g., oak tree to aphids to blue tits to sparrow
hawk); whereas a pyramid of productivity always shows a decrease along the
food chain; the data for pyramids of numbers are relatively easier to collect than
for pyramids of productivity, whereas pyramids of productivity require rate of
biomass production over time, which is more difficult to collect; pyramids of
productivity show the flow of energy over time. [2]

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 Both pyramid of numbers and pyramid of productivity must be addressed to
achieve maximum 2 marks.
[Total 5 marks]

15. HL
a) Chest/underbelly colour (green vs grey/blue); head colour; neck/throat marking
(red vs grey/blue); beak colour; foot colour. [1]

Do not accept only ‘colour is different'.

b) Competition/interspecific competition; competition for nesting sites/food (where
their distributions/habitats overlap, i.e., altitudes 600–800 m); resource
partitioning. [1]
c) Both species nest in holes in trees; both species eat fruit and nuts; the imperial
amazon feeds only in dense forest, whereas the red-necked amazon feeds in
forests and plantations/red-necked amazon also eats in banana and citrus
plantations; the red-necked amazon lives between 0 and 800 m, whereas the
imperial amazon lives between 600 and 1300 m/at higher elevations/both live
between 600 and 800 m. [3 max]

There must be evidence of comparison in the response: at least one compare

and one contrast statement required for full marks.

(1250−160) (1250−170)
d) 160
× 100 = 681(%)/ 170
× 100 = 635(%) [1]

Accept between 635 and 681. Accept values with decimals.

e) Red-necked amazon (RNA) more social, so protection in numbers from
predators, reducing mortality rates/increasing survival rates/imperial amazon (IA)
lives singly, so at greater risk of predation; RNA more social so greater breeding
success/greater choice of potential mates/IA has reduced mating success due to
solitary behaviour/may not breed again after the loss of a mate during the
hurricane/IA may die if it loses its partner; RNA eat fruit from banana and citrus
orchards/wider variety of food sources, so less competition for food/IA has a
more limited food source, so has greater competition for food; RNA less
specialized/can adapt to a number of different habitats, so less affected by
hurricane damage to the forest; IA being outcompeted for nesting sites by the
RNA; time taken for rainforest to recover after hurricane means delay in recovery
of IA/humans replant orchards, so food source for RNA recovers more quickly;
initial population of RNA was higher in 1980. [2 max]
[Total 8 marks]

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 16. HL
a) Frequent egg laying (three times per year); many eggs laid at one time (5000);
young fish grow quickly/early maturity. [1]
b) Positive [2 max]:
Provide additional food source for native fish (e.g., yellow perch); eat other
invasive species, such as the zebra mussel.

Negative [2 max]:
Increased competition for food, outcompeting native fish; outcompetes the native
mottled sculpin for the best egg-laying sites; outcompetes native species which
may become extinct; eats other fish eggs, reducing populations/biodiversity;
introduces disease, reducing populations/biodiversity.

Accept any other reasonable response. Do not accept only ‘outcompetes native
species’, for credit must be linked to competition for food, egg laying sites or
species extinction. Do not accept ‘aggressively takes the habitat of native
species’.

[3 max overall]

c) Resources declined due to competition with round goby; competition for/loss of

nesting sites; loss of food resources due to additional competition; realized niche
has changed because of impacts of climate change affecting temperature. [3]
[Total 7 marks]

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