LTNIT 2 CANAL ALIGNMENT

Structure
2.1 Introduction
~)bjectives
2.2 Alignment of a Canal
2.2.1 Contour Canals
2.2.2 Watershed Canals
2.2.3 S ~ d eSlope Canals

2.3 Contour
2.4 Side Slopes of a Canal
2.5 Longitudinal Slope
2.6 Rugosity Coefficient
2.7 Permissible Velocities
2.8 Curves
2.9 Top Width of Banks
2.10 Berms
2.11 Free Board
2.12 Service Road
2.13 Dowla
2.14 Width of Land Acquisition
2.15 Summary
2.16 Key Words
2.17 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Alignment of a canal connotes its layout in plan. It is by virtue of the alignment of a canal
that the extent of its command area is determined - say, area that can be irrigated by
gravity flow. Moreover, it is only a judicious alignment that balanccs the cut and fill as
required in the construction of a canal; and avoidq treacherous section of the area with
reference to its safety and minimum effort in maintaining the system. All these aspects
influence the cost of a given project. Therefore, fixing the alignment is very fundamental
to a canal system: and, it calls for experience and sound judgement.

Objectives
By studying this unit, you would be able to appreciate the importance of the various
features of a canal, such as :
alignment of a canal,
contours,
side slopes of a canal,
bed slope,
rugosity coefficient,
permissible velocities,
top width of banks, and
other design parameters.
2.2 ALIGNMENT OF A CANAL
It is essential to align a canal on the watershed (i.e., ridge) of an area in order that water
can tlow under gravity to fields on either side of the canal, as mentioned above. From the
headworks the canal should be so aligned that it reaches the top of the ridge of the
watershed in the shortest possible distance. It is, therefore, necessary to prepare a detailed
contour plan of the area to project distinctly the ridges and valleys of the command area,
so that the main branches and all distributaries are aligned appropriately in accordance
with the principle enunciated above.
According to the alignment (i.e., the path) they follow, irrigation canals are classified as :
(i) contour canals,
(ii) watershed (or ridge) canals, and
(iii) side slope canals.
Figure 2.1 shows the layout of a contour canal, watershed canal and side slope canal.

A CONTOVR CANAL
B WATER SHE0 OR R l O M C Y I M
_ L - - ~ c SIOC SCOPE C A M 1

- CONTOURS
crrnnir~ls

Pigum 2.1 :Layout of Contour, Watershed, and Side Slope Canals

2.2.1 Contour Canals

A contour canal is aligned almost parallel to the contours of the terrain traversed (i.e.,
with very mild slopes as such). In Figure 2.1 Lhe contour canal is also the main canal. It is
given a longitudinal slope, as said above, such that the required velocity of flow is
generated. A contour canal can irrigat:: land only on one side of itself because the area on
the other side is higher due to higher contour lines. These conditions generally occur in
the head reaches of the canal. These situations usually prevail in a hilly country. A
contour canal would cross the natural drainage lines since the line of flow of surface
drainage lies at right angles to the ground contours. After it takes off from the river a
main canal is a contour canal, but an attempt is always made to bring it to the main
watershed as early as possible. Contour canals below the ridge will have to cross a very
large number of drainages.

2.2.2 Watershed or Ridge Canals

A watershed is an imi~ginaryline that passes through all the highest points in the area
such that the ground slopes downward on both sides of this line. A canal constructed on
this watershed or ridge (of course, with a bed slope) is called a watershed canal or a ridge
canal. hl Figure 2.1, the two branch canal taking off from the main canal are also the
examples of ridge canals. Here, cross drainage works are not required. The watershed at
times may be so zigzag that the canal cannot possibly follow it exactly all the way. Any
substantial variation shall necessitate the provision of cross drainage works. A watershed
canal is the best canal as it can command areas on both sides to which water tlows under
gravity. As far as possible, a canal should3e-donstructea on the watershed. It is the most C a d Alignment
economical type of canal because cross drainage works are not required in such a case.

2.2.3 Side Slope Canals

A side slope canal is neither on the watershed nor along any coi~[Link] is more or less
aligned at right angles to the contours; and is parallel to the drainages, and hence no cross
drainage works are needed, or else very small number of drainage crossings shall be
necessary.
General Principles of Alignment
It may be stressed that the fixation of alignment of a canal is of much importarice from
many points of view. As discussed elsewhere also, the topic involves balancing of many
factors. However, for the sake of appropriateness at this point and reiteration, the general
principles are surnmarised as under :
1) A canal should be aligned along a ridge, as far as posslble as well as feasible,
to ensure supply of water on both sides of the canal. As a bonus this avoids
cross drainage works. Similarly, all the smaller channels may be laid on
subsidiary ridges if the situation allows.
2) It is ideal if the main canal mounts the ridge traversing as small a distance as
possible reckoned from the point of offtake. In Figure 2.2 ~tcan be seen that
the main canal takes off from point A, and touches the ridge, as desired, at
point B. It is obvious that in reach AB the calla1 is a contour canal. However,
the finally adopted alignment in this zone is the result of'a comparative study
of various possible alternatives.

WORKS

-ore 2 2 :Main Canal Mounting the R i d ~ e

3) The canal should take a straight course when the ridge makes very sharp loops
(Figure 2.3).

figure 2 3 :Straight Alignment through Sharp Loups in the Topography

4) As far as practicable, the canal should An through the midst of the command
area, to minimise the cost of subsequent distribution network. At the same
time it should avoid inhabitated areas, religious places, and important and
valuable structures, etc.
5 ') Number of cross drainage works should be least, and unavoidable curves
should have large radii to avoid erosion of the banks.
6) To rninimise seepage and other losses, maintenance cast and the length should
be as small as possible; and one should avoid the passage of the canal through
sandy, alkaline, waterlogged areas and hard earth areas.
 7) The blinrl length of the canat, i.e., the mh that does not have outletsfor
irrigation should be minimum.
8) The crossings with roads, railway lines, and drainages should be at right
angles, and in no case less than 45O. The canal should pass a stream at a place
where the strean1is running straight.
9) Apart [Link] consideration of the balancing the cutting and filling, a heavy
filling is to be avoided with reference to cost and heavy seepage losses and
consequent proneness to breaches. Moreover, heavy cutting does not allow
gravity flow into the fields on either side.
S'AQ 1
\I/il;ir [lo you understal~tjby conrour-c;iilals, watcrshetl calills alld siclc. slope
{.;irlaJs'!('ollyct sonje I'icltJ &la. ant1 draw the c!,ntour [nap showilly [Link] ~ i l ~ l : I l <
i 11 these t~c'~iripllo11~.

SAQ 2
I i 11 ~icces~ary
l.h;it lor a cari;rl u ~ l ~ l lci frt i l - ~ i y i ~ t\ ~
L ,oI i~l ;l~ l t~lii ~ '.iliy~i~lii:~lt
sIlt)iilil
Callow rhc p r ~ ~ ~ c i pout1111cd
lcs in Scct~on2.2') Ijixuss in tlc(;ul.

2.3 CONTOUR
For planning any irrigation scheme the first necessity is to mark out the contours after
carrying out levelling in the area to obtain a contour plan. Contours are lines drawn on
the plan of an area to represent all spots having the same elevation (of a given magnitude)
above the sea level or any assumed datum. The most convenient method for this work is
to draw on the ground and plan a longitudinal line approximately in the centre of the
doab (doab is the land between two drainages) and then draw cross lines at suitable
intervals - 200 m intervals would be sufficient in a plain area while closer intervals
would be required in undulating areas. A starting point can precisely be identified on the
sheet by any disti~iguishirlgfeature. The direction of the line in the field can be laid out
by identifying another point near a distinguishing feature shown on the sheet and ranging
a line between the two. The leveller then proceeds along the longitudinal line, the
distance to each staff position being measured or observed by stadia. With the help of
these distances, the levels can be transferred to the sheet. The contours are next drawn on
the plan. These contours are useful in marking out the alignment of canals as mentioned
earlier. Keeping the canal between the same two contours will result in a contour canal or
canal with a mild longitudinal slope, while canals crossing the contours at right angles
will-have the maximum slope in the direction of flow and would be either watershed or
side slope canals.

Descr~he.111 Jetail. d~llerentmethods tor tlrawl~igcontours on a pla~r''Havllig

drawn the contours how can you a11gn contour, watershed and s ~ d e\lope canal.\ '
I llustrnte your answer will1 sketchc\
 Canal Alignment
2.4 SIDE SLOPES OF A CANAL
An irrigation canal lnay bc of ally of the three types, so far as its construction is
concerned, namely :
a) totally in cutting,
b) in partial cutting and filling, or
c) totally in filling.
Typical cross-sections of the three types of canals, as mentioned above, are given in
Figure 2.4.
0cundrv tnnch

-8-
I- Permanent h d Widlh ______e(
CANAL N CUTTING

+- Permanent 'Land Width

CANAL IN PARTIAL CUTTING
'
I

CANAL IN FILLING

Figure 2.4 :Typical Canal Cross-sections

The side slope of a canal is an important consideration in its design, construction, and
stability. The slope should be stable, i.e., the geometry of the section should be stable, the
value of such a slope depends upon tlre type of ~rlaterialthrough which the canal is
rumling. It is ccononlical to have as steep a side slope as possible; and the slope is
generally steeper in cutting and flatter in embankments. Table 2.1 gives the side slopes
recommended fur different malerials.
Table 2.1 :.Side Slopes Recommended for Unlined Canals
F
No. Type of Soil Side Slope (H :V)

Very light Loose sand to 1 .5 : l to 2:1 (in cutting)

average sandy soil 2 :1 to 3: 1 (in embankment)
2 Sandy loam, black cotton I :1 t o 1.5 :1 (it1 cutting)
soil, and similar soils 2 :1 (in embankment)

1 3 1 Sandy soil or gravel

I 1 : I to 2 : I
i
1 4 1 Murunr hard soil
I 0.75 : I to 1.5 :I
I
1 5 1 Rock i 0.25 :1 to 0.5 : l 1
1)i~tributionWorks-I
2.5 LONGITUDINAL SLOPE
In actual practice, the longitudinal slope of the canal bed is influenced considering the
country slope and factors consislent with economy. Each possible slope gives rise to
different canal dimensions. In general, the slope required to allow the maximum
permissible velocity of flow would give the most economical section. However, the
reyuirement of providing maximum possible irrigation or deriving the maximum possible
head for power generation, would indicate tlatter slope guided by the minimum
permissible velocity. The slope adopted will generally lie between the extreme values.
Providing a sleep longitudinal slope would mean deep cutting and excessive excavation
besides losing the area under comnland and also losing the gross head for generating
hydropower. On the other hand, providing a flatter slope would result in raising
enibankments to confine the canal while gaining the area under command and also
increasing thc gross head for power generation.
The longitudinal slope of a canal should be such that it results in balanced earthwork
which means that the amount of excavated soil is fully utilised in filling the embankments
or banks. This will minimise the necessity of borrow pits (from where the extra earth
needed for filling will be taken) and spoil banks (where the extra earth from excavation
will be deposited. The earthwork is paid for 011 the basis of either the excavation or the
filling whichever is inore; but the usual practice is to pay separately for cutting and
filling. A canal in balanqed earthwork will, therefore, minimise the cost of the project.
For a small length of a canal near a fall there is always some unbalanced earthwork which
should be kept to a minimum for obvious economic reasons.

SAQ 7
Wh;ri (lo you uncle~.~tand ci\rtl\wcirk in t.l~ecc,nsuuctioti of a canal'!
hy h;~lan~c:tl
Bring ou! ~ l l cr-oli: (,I' In~~p~tutlini~l
slopr. ant1 allyrirric!nt in {his rcspccl.

2.6 RUGOSITY COEFFICIENT

The formula developed by Manning for flow in open canals or channels is used in most
of the hydraulic analysis. The forn~ulais written as follows :
V = (l/n) x R ~ x /'
"s ~ . . . (2.1)
or, Q = ( l / n ) x A x R ~ / ' x s'/' . . . (2.2)
where, A = the cross-section of tlow in 1112 ,
V = the velocity in m / s,
n = roughness coefficient (or rugosity coefficient),
H = the hydraulic mean depth or radius in m,
2
- -,area of cross-section of flow (m )
-
welted perimeter (m)
S = the slope of the energy gradient which is taken the same as the bed slope
for practical purposes, and
Q = discharge in cumec.
The value of the roughness coefficient, n, varies basically according to the physical
characteristics of the roughness of the sides and bottom of the channel, and is influenced
by such factors as channel curvature, size and shape of cross-section, alignment, and type Canal iiIignn16nt
and condition of the material forming the wetted perimeter.
The values of n commonly used in the design of artificial canals are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 :Coeff~cientof Roughness of Common, Average Channels

arth channel in good condition, or large e

with some growth on balks or scattered

SAQ 8
a) What are tht. factors which influcncc llx sugosily i:(;~i'l'it,iiilt'.'

h) What is the relationship o C n with Cltazy's cortficiei:t'i

2.7 PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES

For determining the dimensions of a canal section, one must know the discharge to be
conveyed and the velocity of the flowing water that can be allowed to prevail. The area of
cross-section of the canal, A, can then be expressed as :
A = Q/V . . . (2.3)
where, (2 = the discharge in cumec, and
V = the velocity of flow in m/s.
The velocity of flow that can be permitted depends upon the type of the material forming
the bed and the banks. The maximum permissible velocity is the velocity that may be
allowed in a canal which will not allow the sediment to get deposited in the canal, nor
will it scour the canal bed or banks. The permissible velocities for various materials are
given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 : Maximum Permissible Velocity

No. Q p e of Soil Velocity (mls)

1. Very light, loose sand to average sandy soil 0.3 - 0.6

2. Ordinary soils 0.6 - 0.9

3. Sandy loam, black cotton soil and similar 0.6 - 0.9

soils

4. Hard soils, murum, etc. 0.9 - i . 1

5. Gravel 1.5

6. Disintegrated rock 1.5

Distrihutiou Works-I
. .. :., ..,. ;..:,.
, c z . ,s;zb,pt c :> ;;i-!t)c~i-y;
11; ',' \Vhi11
i.:~t);il [Link]~jt:~j do J-ou U ! Ifl~t!
~ K ~ S S ~ ~b:< U
. ..:, _. :::
%..6..
.
%
, i .. . :;!I :!i8~[i:iL;!

y.:!!-
:::.it, ( ~ , l !.j>i,[ulc/,
.
, -. L. ... . :, :!:l:!:j<~:

2.8 CURVES
Ideally a canal should be following a straight alignment. But, in practice curves are
unavoidable. However, as far as possible, the curves should be quite gentle, because
sharper the curve, tile Inore is the disturbance experienced by the flow of water. In
unlined channels very gentle curves become imperative in order to reduce the disturbance
to flow and prevent scouring on the concave side and silt deposition on the convex side of
the bend. Pitchingis sometimes resorted to on the concave side in an effort to prevent
scouring of the bed and side material.
Generally, the curves are simple circular curves. Greater the discharge, the larger is the
radius of the curve - usually the radius is kept 10 to 15 times the bed width of the canal.
IS : 5968-1970 recommends the minimum radius, vis-a-vis, different discharges.
Table 2.4 gives the minimum radii for different capacities of channels which represent the
Indian practice in this regard, which is the result of long experience.
Table 2.4 :Radius of [Link] Unlined Canals

I I No. Channel Capacity

(cumec)
Minimum Radius of
Curves (m)

The superelevation of the water surface on the outside of the bend is very small (and is
generally neglected) in unlined channels because the velocities permitted are less - thus,
outer banks are not raised. However, in the case of lined channels where higher velocities
of flow are permitted the superelevation may be high. If supercritical velocity, for a given
flow, occurs in a lined channel, it is best to avoid curves. But in the event when curves
are unavoidable then the water surface profile should be computed with care to allow an
appropriate design provision.
 Canal Alignment
2.9 TOP WIDTH OF BANKS
The banks, wherever needed, are provided to retain water in the canal. It is obvious that
the banks refer to that put of the canal cn~ss-sectionwhich lies above the ground level.
I Although the primary function of banks is to retain water, they constitute a means of
communication as well as a path facilitating the inspection of the canal.
i
The width of the bank should be such that a certain minrmum soil cover 1s available
above the saturation line in the soil (Figures 2.4 and 2.5). In the case of ordinary loamy
soils the saturation gradient may be taken as 4: 1 (H:V). Where b e banks are very high
above the general ground level, they should be designed as earth Qms. However, for
banks of a height less than 5.0 m, it is generally assumed to be a slnight line, starting
from the point where the full supply level (FSL side of the bank. The
slope of the saturation Iine depends on Ule type ittSOn line should have at
least a soil cover of 0.3 m. If the bank 1s not for thig pipme, a counter
berm (i.e., a back berm - Figure 2.4) ma 5 @wwLQc recommended
values for the depth of earth cover for di

I figure 2 5 :Seepage thmugh Canal Banks

Table 2.5 :Minimum Depth of Earth Cover over Saturation Gradient

No. Type of Canal Discharge Eartb Cover

(cumec) (4
1. Main canal and 150 - 30 1.00
branches 30 - 10 0.80

2. Canal Minors 10- 1 0.50

3. L)istributaries 1 5 0.3 0.50

The top width of the bank also depends on the discharge carried by the canal. Table 2.6(a)
and (b) give the recomme~lcledvalues for diffqent canals.
Table 2.6 (a) : Minimum Crest Width of Canal Banks

No. Type of Canal Discharge Crest Width

(cum*) (m)

1. Main canal and 150 - 30 3.00

branches 30 - 10 2.50

2. Canal Minors 10-5 2.25

5- I 2.00

3. Distributaries 1 - 0.3 1.50

i0.3 1.00

Table 2.6(b) :Minimum Top Width d Banks

[Link]. Discharge Minimum Top Width (m)

(m3/s)
Inspection Bank Non-inspection Bank

1. 0.15 - 7.5 5.O 1.5

2. 7.5 - 10.0 5.O 2.5
3. 10.0 - 15.0 6 .O 2.5
4. 15.0 - 30.0 7.0 3.5
5. 30.0 and above 8.0 5.O
Distribution Works-1 Sometimes the following empirical formula is used to fix the top width :
Top width of Bank = Full Suppl Depth + 0.3 (Base width of the bank I
~ u lsupply
l epth)In "b
However, a minimum top width of 1.5 m should always be provided.

2.10 BERMS
A narrow strip of land known as the berm is provided between the upper edge of the cut
and the toe of the bank (Figure 2.4 and 2.6).

Figure 2.6 :Provision of Bern in a C a d Scc(lm

The berm serves the following functions :
(a) Beams give strength to banks against the occurrence of breaches erosion.
(b) They help reduce the load on the banks, thus avoiding sloughing.
(c) The flow of rain water on the side slopes is slowed down, thus erosion of the
side slopes is reduced.
(d) With time, silt gets deposited on the berms. It gives an impervious lining,
helping reduce seepage losses.
(e) They provide additional path for inspection.
(f) They help shift the saturation line inwards -so the changes of sloughing of
outer bank slope are reduced.
(g) Berms easily allow any future widening of the canal section.
1
The minin~umwidth of the berms is recommended as = - x (the width of combined side
4
slopes of cutting and embankment) + 0.5 m; while the maximum width is reckoned as
1
- x (the width of combined side slopes of cutting and embankment) + 0.5 m.
2

i 'ii:!~\vicltil 01 h;r~!ks.i i ) Bcrnr witilh. I ~ I ) Inspcclio~[Link]. allti iv) Spoil b;~nks.

2.11 FREE BOARD

Free Board (F. B .) is the margin provided between the full supply level of the canal and
the top of the bank for reasons of safety with reference to chances of overtopping of the
banks due to waves orland fluctuations in the water surface. The amount of freeboard
required depends on the size of the canal, inflow of rain water, the conditions of the
banks and the fluctuations of the water levels due to regulation of flow, expected in the
canal, and other practical considerations. Table 2.7 gives the recommended values of free
boards.
 Table 2.7 :Free Boards in Canals Canal A l i m e n t

I I No. a p e of Canal Free Board

I
1 1 1. Main canal and
branches
(cum-)

150 - 30
30 - 10
3.00
0.90

2. 1 Canal (Minors) 10 - 5
5- 1
0.75
0.60
I
Distributaries 1 - 0.3 0.50
( 3.
< 0.3 0.40

2.12 SERVICE ROAD

Service roads are provided on canals and distributaries for the purpose of inspection and
maintenance. The road is provided 0.25 to 0.75 m above the full supply level depending
upon the size of the canal. The recommended widths of the roadways is given in
Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 : Width of Roadways for Canals

I ::
No. Type of Canal Discharge Roadway Width

I
(cumec) (m)
1. Main culal and 150 - 30 6.00
bral~ches 3 0 - 10 5.(X)

C m d Minors 1 0- - 5 5.00
3.50

Distributaries 1 - 0.3 [Link]

< 0.3 No roadway is
provided

2.13 DOWLA
To afford safety while driving on the canal bank, dowlas (or dowels) - a raised portion of
the canal bank on the channel side of the inspectic>tlroad - 0.3 m high and 0.3 m to 0.6 m
at the top with side slopes of 1.5 : 1 (H : V) are provided along the banks on both sides.
These dowlas also prevent the erosion of the slope due to rain. The top of the dowel is
kept at a level which is greater than the full supply level (F. S. L.) of the canal by the
amount of free board.

2.14 WIDTH OF LAND

- ACQUISITION
One can categorise the x r c a s s land
~ width to be acquired for the construction of a canal
as follows :
i) Permanent Lun I;Yiii::h
It is the width of land required even after the construction of a canal. It covers the
canal section and extends (as per I. S. Codes) a little beyond the outer toes of the canal
banks on either side. It may have to accommodate a longitudinal drain, trees if
proposed to be planted.
ii) Teniporaly Land Width
During the construction of a canal, extra width of land is needed in order to store
materials and machines at site, and for borrow pits, etc. n i s land constitutes
temporary land width. However, this is returned to the owners later on with suitable
compensation.
The width of land to be acquired, clear of the banks when the canal cutting is deeper than
balancing depth, is 5 m plus half the height of the bapk above ground level subject to a
minimum of 1.5 m.
When the canal is shallower than the balancing depth, the width of land to be acquired
clear of the banks, is full height of bank above ground plus 5 m for main and branch
canals; and full height of bank above ground plus 1.5 m for minors and distributaries.

2-15 SUMMARY
Alignment of a canal has to balance the requirements of flow of water by gravity into the
fields, and the considerations that contribute to the minimisation of cost of construction.
Contour, ridge, and side slope canals are, broadly speaking, the various types according
to the scheme of alignment adopted in the field.
Longitudinal and side slopes are important physical features of a canal that depend on
various factors. Moreover, coefficient of rough~less(i.e., rugosity coefficient),
permissible velocities of flow, degree of curves in alignment, top width of banks, berms,
and free board, etc., comprise some important inputs for the design of a canal section.
The total cost of a canal project, in addition to its construction component, also includes
the cost of the land to be acquired permanently as well as temporarily for its execution.

2-16 KEY WORDS

Alignment of a Canal : The layout (in plan) of a canal system conveying water
from the source to various parts of command area is
known as the alignment of the canal.
Berms : Berms are narrow strips of land provided between the
upper edge of the cut and the toe of the banks.
Contour : A line joining points of the same elevation above see level
or above any datum below the ground surface is called a
contour.
Curves : Bends in the alignment of a canal are called curves.
Dowla : A raised earthern section (trapezoidal) along the canal
bank that is provided as a protection to traffic is called a
dowla.
Free board : A free board is the margin (vertical difference in height)
provided between the full supply level of a canal and the
top of the bank to accommodate fluctuations in the water
level.
~ongitudinal'
Slope : Slope of the canal bed in the direction of floiv is known as
its longitudinal slope.
Permissible Velocity : The velocity of flow of water that does not cause any
erosion of the bed or banks.
Rugosity Coefficient : The physical roughness of the sides and bottom of a
channel is represented in discharge formula as rugosity
coefficient.
Service Road : l'he road provided on the bank of a canal for purposes of
inspection and movement of traffic.
Side Slopes of a Canal : The slopes of the canal banks (upto where the water
would be flowing) in a direction normal to the flowing
water.
 Top Width of Banks : The width of the canal bank, at the road level, provided Cand Alignmenl

for the movement of traffic.

Width of Land : The width of land to be acquired on either side of the
Acquisition length of a canal, for the purposes of constructing the
canal.

2.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

I Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in
the section "Further Reading" to get the answers of the SAQs.