EnginEEring Hydrology

Module 2 Catchment
What are the characteristics of Catchrment?
A catchment (also called a drainage basin or watershed) is an area of land where
all precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet such as a river,
lake, or reservoir. The characteristics of a catchment significantly influence the
quantity and quality of runoff generated. The main characteristics are:
1. Catchment Area – The total surface area contributing water to the outlet.
Larger areas generally produce higher runoff volumes.
2. Shape of Catchment – The shape (elongated, circular, fan-shaped) affects the
time of concentration and peak discharge. Circular catchments respond more
quickly to rainfall than elongated ones.
3. Topography and Slope – Steeper slopes promote faster runoff and less
infiltration, while gentle slopes allow more infiltration and lower runoff rates.
4. Soil Type – Determines infiltration capacity; sandy soils allow high infiltration,
whereas clayey soils produce higher surface runoff.
5. Land Use and Vegetation Cover – Forests and grasslands increase infiltration
and reduce runoff, while urban or barren areas increase runoff due to
impervious surfaces.
6. Drainage Density – The ratio of total stream length to catchment area; high
drainage density leads to quick runoff and higher flood peaks.
7. Geology – Permeable rock formations allow infiltration and groundwater
recharge; impermeable rocks enhance surface runoff.
8. Climate and Rainfall Characteristics – Intensity, duration, and frequency of
rainfall strongly influence catchment response and streamflow.

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 Module 3: Measurement of Precipitation:
Write short notes on: a) Orthographic Precipitation b) Symon raingauge c)
Cyclonic precipitation d) Isohyetal method e) Mass Curve of rainfall
a) Orthographic Precipitation:
Orthographic precipitation occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a
mountain or elevated terrain. As the air ascends, it cools adiabatically, leading to
condensation and rainfall on the windward side of the mountain. The leeward
side receives little rainfall and forms a rain shadow region. This type of
precipitation is common in hilly or mountainous areas and is influenced by
topography rather than temperature differences.
b) Symon Raingauge:
The Symon raingauge is a non-recording type of raingauge commonly used in
India. It consists of a funnel-shaped collector, a receiving bottle, and a
measuring cylinder. The collector has a circular opening of 127 mm diameter,
and the rainfall collected is measured daily using a graduated measuring
cylinder. The gauge is fixed 30 cm above the ground surface on a concrete
platform.
c) Cyclonic Precipitation:
Cyclonic precipitation occurs due to the uplift of moist air caused by the
convergence of air masses in a low-pressure system (cyclone). When warm,
moist air meets cooler air, it rises, cools, and condenses to produce rainfall. It is
usually widespread and continuous, often associated with tropical cyclones or
depressions. It can bring heavy rainfall over large areas.
d) Isohyetal Method:
The isohyetal method is a graphical technique used to determine the average
rainfall over a catchment. Isohyets—lines connecting points of equal rainfall—
are drawn on a map. The catchment is divided into zones between successive
isohyets, and the mean rainfall is calculated using the weighted average method.
This method gives more accurate results than the arithmetic mean or Thiessen
polygon method.
e) Mass Curve of Rainfall:
A mass curve of rainfall is a graph showing cumulative rainfall depth versus time at a given
station. It provides a visual representation of how rainfall accumulates during a storm or over
a period. The slope of the curve indicates the intensity of rainfall — steep slopes represent
high intensity, and flat portions represent no rainfall. Mass curves are useful for analyzing
storm patterns and designing drainage structures.

2
What are the different types of Raingauge? Describe the working principleof
both types.
1. Non-Recording Raingauge:
This type simply collects and stores rainfall for manual measurement.
• Example: Symon’s Raingauge (commonly used in India).
• Working Principle: Rainwater is collected through a funnel into a receiving
bottle. At a fixed time (usually 8:30 a.m. daily), the water is measured using a
graduated cylinder to determine the rainfall depth. It provides total rainfall
over a specific period but not its variation with time.
2. Recording Raingauge:
This type records rainfall continuously with respect to time on a chart.
• Example: Tipping Bucket and Weighing Type Raingauge.
• Working Principle:
o In a tipping bucket raingauge, rain fills one of two small buckets that tip
alternately when filled to a preset amount, each tip recording a pulse
corresponding to rainfall depth.
o In a weighing raingauge, rainfall is collected in a container placed on a
weighing mechanism, and the change in weight is continuously recorded on
a chart or electronically.
Recording gauges thus give both total rainfall and intensity variation over time.

3
 Module 5: Losses from Precipitation: Evaporation
What are the factors affecting evaporation from water surface?
Temperature:
Higher water and air temperatures increase the kinetic energy of water
molecules, enhancing evaporation.
Wind Velocity:
Wind removes saturated air from the surface and replaces it with drier air,
thereby increasing the evaporation rate.
Humidity:
When relative humidity is high, the air is already saturated with moisture, so
evaporation decreases. Lower humidity promotes faster evaporation.
Air Pressure:
Low atmospheric pressure favors evaporation, while high pressure suppresses it.
Water Surface Area:
Larger surface areas provide more exposure to air, increasing the rate of
evaporation.
Quality of Water:
Impurities such as salts reduce evaporation because they lower the vapor
pressure of water.
Solar Radiation:
Strong sunlight increases the energy available for evaporation, especially during
clear, hot days.
Nature of Surroundings:
Vegetation, shading, and surrounding temperature conditions also influence the
rate of evaporation from a water surface.

4
What is potential evapotranspiration? Explain its significance.
Potential evapotranspiration: The transpiration is the sum of the water lost to
atmosphere by the plants through transpiration and the water evaporated from
the soil or water body, surrounding the plant. This loss will evidently depend
upon the available the moisture for both the processes of transpiration and
evaporation. When sufficient moisture is freely available to completely meet the
need softhe vegetation fully covering an area the resulting evapo-transpiration is
called potential evapo-transpiration or consumptive for that vegetated area.
Potential evapo-transpiration is usually measured indirectly, from other climatic
factors, but also depends on the surface type, such as free water forlakes and
oceans the soil type for bare soil, and the vegetation. Often a value for the
potential evapo transpiration is calculated at a nearby climate station on a
reference surface, conventionally short grass. This value is called the reference
evapo-transpiration, and can be converted to a potential evapo-transpiration by
multiplying with a surface coefficient. In agriculture, this is called a crop
coefficient. The difference between potential evapo transpiration and
precipitation is used in irigation scheduling.
What are the factors affecting the evaporation losses?
Factors Affecting Evaporation Losses (Short Answer):
1. Temperature: Higher air and water temperatures increase evaporation.
2. Wind Velocity: Strong winds replace moist air with dry air, enhancing
evaporation.
3. Humidity: High relative humidity reduces evaporation; low humidity
increases it.
4. Solar Radiation: More sunlight provides more energy for evaporation.
5. Air Pressure: Low atmospheric pressure favors evaporation.
6. Water Surface Area: Larger exposed areas lead to greater evaporation losses.
7. Water Quality: Salts and impurities reduce the rate of evaporation.
8. Nature of Surroundings: Shading, vegetation, and surface roughness can
reduce evaporation.

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 Module 6 Streamflow Measurement:
Write short note on Area Velocity Method?
The Area Velocity Method is a commonly used technique for measuring the
discharge (flow rate) of a stream, river, or open channel. It is based on the
principle that:
𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉
Working Principle:
• The cross-sectional area of the flow is determined by measuring the width
and depth of the stream at several points.
• The velocity of water is measured using a current meter, float method, or
Acoustic Doppler device at various vertical sections.
• The average velocity is then multiplied by the cross-sectional area to obtain
the discharge.
How to calculate flow of a stream by Dilution Technique?
A known quantity or concentration of a tracer (such as salt, dye, or radioisotope)
is introduced into the stream. After complete mixing, the dilution of the tracer
downstream is measured. The reduction in concentration helps determine the
discharge
Formula:
If a tracer of known discharge and concentration is injected, the flow rate 𝑄of
the stream is given by:
𝑞(𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶0 )
𝑄=
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑖
where,
𝑄= discharge of the stream (m³/s)
𝑞= rate of tracer injection (m³/s)
𝐶𝑠 = tracer concentration in the injected solution
𝐶𝑖 = tracer concentration in the stream after mixing
𝐶0 = background concentration in the stream before injection

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What are the devices that ueed to measure the stream velocity? Describe
briefly.
Current Meter:
• Most common device; works on the principle that the rotation speed of cups
or a propeller is proportional to water velocity.
• The number of revolutions gives the velocity through a calibration curve.
Float Method:
• A floating object is released on the water surface, and the time taken to
travel a known distance is measured.
• Surface velocity = Distance / Time; average velocity ≈ 0.85 × surface velocity.
Pitot Tube:
• Measures the difference between stagnation and static pressure in flowing
water.
• Velocity is calculated using Bernoulli’s equation.
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP):
• Uses sound waves and the Doppler effect to measure water velocity at
different depths.
• Provides accurate, automatic velocity profiles across the stream.

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 Module 7 Runoff: & Module 8 Unit Hydrograph
What are the Runoff characteristics of Streams?
Runoff characteristics describe how water flows over the land and through
streams after precipitation. They depend on both catchment and climatic
conditions. The main characteristics are:
1. Magnitude of Runoff:
o Refers to the total volume of water flowing in the stream after rainfall.
o Influenced by rainfall intensity, duration, soil type, and land cover.
2. Peak Discharge:
o The highest flow rate during a runoff event or storm.
o Important for flood analysis and drainage design.
3. Duration of Flow:
o Time period during which runoff continues after rainfall.
o Short for steep, impermeable catchments; longer for flat, permeable ones.
4. Time of Concentration:
o Time taken for water from the most distant point in the catchment to
reach the outlet.
o Determines the shape of the hydrograph.
5. Base Flow:
o The portion of streamflow contributed by groundwater between rainfall
events.
6. Hydrograph Shape:
o Reflects how quickly runoff occurs — sharp peaks indicate flashy streams;
broad peaks show slow runoff.

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What are the factors affecting Runoff?
Rainfall Characteristics:
• Intensity, duration, and distribution of rainfall directly affect the volume and
timing of runoff.
Soil Type:
• Permeable soils (sandy) allow more infiltration and less runoff, while
impermeable soils (clayey) produce higher runoff.
Land Use and Vegetation:
• Forests and vegetation increase infiltration and reduce runoff; urban areas
with impervious surfaces increase runoff.
Topography and Slope:
• Steep slopes cause rapid surface flow and higher runoff, while gentle slopes
favor infiltration.
Catchment Shape and Size:
• Compact or circular catchments produce quicker runoff peaks than
elongated ones.
Antecedent Moisture Condition:
• If the soil is already saturated from previous rain, more runoff occurs.
Temperature and Evaporation:
• High temperatures and evaporation reduce available water for runoff.
Geology:
• Permeable rock strata promote infiltration and reduce surface runoff.

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Write short notes on the following: a) Base flow separation b) Effective Rainfall.
a) Base Flow Separation:
Base flow separation is the process of distinguishing the base flow (groundwater
contribution) from the direct runoff in a stream hydrograph after a rainfall
event. The total streamflow consists of:
• Direct runoff: Water flowing quickly from rainfall.
• Base flow: Sustained flow contributed by groundwater seeping slowly into
the stream.
Method:
A hydrograph is plotted, and a separation line is drawn to divide the quick-
response runoff from the slower, continuous base flow.
Common methods include straight-line, fixed-slope, and curvilinear approaches.
Significance:
• Helps in estimating groundwater recharge and streamflow components.
• Useful in hydrological modeling and water resource planning.
b) Effective Rainfall:
Effective rainfall is the portion of total rainfall that actually contributes to direct
runoff after accounting for losses like infiltration, evaporation, and interception.
In simple terms:
Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall − Losses
Significance:
• Determines the runoff volume used in flood estimation and watershed
modeling.
• Important in hydrograph analysis and unit hydrograph development.
• Helps in designing drainage systems and water management structures.

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Differentiate between D-hour unit hydrograph and instantaneous unit
hydrograph.

Basis of D-hour Unit Hydrograph Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph

Difference (UH) (IUH)

A hydrograph representing A hydrograph representing

runoff produced by 1 cm (or runoff due to 1 cm of rainfall
Definition 1 unit) of effective rainfall occurring instantaneously (of
uniformly distributed over D zero duration) over the
hours. catchment.

Duration of Has a finite duration (D Has zero duration, representing

Effective hours), e.g., 3-hour, 6-hour, an instantaneous pulse of
Rainfall or 12-hour unit hydrograph. rainfall.

Hydrograph is wider and Hydrograph is sharper and

Shape of
smoother, as rainfall narrower, as rainfall occurs
Hydrograph
continues for D hours. instantly.

Commonly used for practical Mainly used for theoretical

hydrological analysis such as derivations or to develop
Use
flood estimation and storm hydrographs of other durations
runoff prediction. by convolution.

The D-hour UH can be The IUH can be derived as the

Relation derived from the IUH by limiting case of the D-hour UH
integrating it over D hours. as D → 0.

Derived IUH used for

6-hour or 12-hour unit
Example transforming rainfall into runoff
hydrograph of a catchment.
using mathematical models.

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What is a 'S-hydrograph? What is its significance in stream run-off computation?
S-Hydrograph (Short Answer):
An S-hydrograph is a hydrograph that represents the cumulative runoff
produced by a continuous effective rainfall of unit intensity (1 cm/hour) lasting
for an infinite duration over a catchment. Its shape resembles the letter “S,”
hence the name.
Significance in Stream Runoff Computation:
1. Used to derive unit hydrographs of different durations by shifting and
subtracting ordinates of the S-curve.
2. Helps in converting rainfall of any duration into corresponding runoff
hydrographs.
3. Useful for flood forecasting and hydrological modeling, as it provides a
continuous relationship between rainfall and runoff.
4. Simplifies computation when combining or transforming unit hydrographs
of varying durations.
Thus, the S-hydrograph is a valuable tool in runoff estimation and hydrograph
analysis.
What are the application of S curve
Derivation of Unit Hydrograph of Different Durations:
• Used to obtain a unit hydrograph of any desired duration (D-hour) from a known one by
shifting and subtracting S-curve ordinates.
Runoff Computation:
• Helps determine the runoff hydrograph resulting from continuous or prolonged rainfall.
Flood Forecasting:
• Used in predicting streamflow and flood peaks under varying rainfall conditions.
Hydrological Modeling:
• Acts as a basis for transforming rainfall excess into direct runoff for simulation models.
Design of Hydraulic Structures:

• Helps in estimating design floods for dams, spillways, and drainage systems.

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 What is catchment modelling?
Catchment modelling is the process of simulating the hydrological behavior of a
drainage basin or watershed using mathematical models. It represents how
rainfall is transformed into runoff, infiltration, evaporation, and streamflow
within the catchment.
Purpose:
• To predict runoff and streamflow for given rainfall events.
• To assist in flood forecasting, water resource management, and design of
hydraulic structures.
Types of Models:
1. Empirical Models – Based on observed data and statistical relationships.
2. Conceptual Models – Represent the catchment as interconnected storage
units.
3. Physically Based Models – Use physical laws of water movement like
continuity and momentum equations.
Examples: HEC-HMS, SWAT, and MIKE SHE.
What are the applications of unit hydrograph?
1. Runoff Estimation:
o Used to determine the direct runoff hydrograph from a given rainfall excess.
2. Flood Forecasting:
o Helps predict flood peaks and timing for storm events in a catchment.
3. Design of Hydraulic Structures:
o Used in designing dams, spillways, and drainage systems by estimating design floods.
4. Derivation of Hydrographs:
o Basis for developing S-hydrographs and unit hydrographs of different durations.
5. Hydrological Analysis:
o Assists in studying the rainfall–runoff relationship and catchment response characteristics.

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Write down the assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory.
Linearity:
• Runoff is directly proportional to the rainfall excess; i.e., doubling rainfall
doubles runoff.
Time Invariance:
• The catchment characteristics and response remain constant over time for
similar rainfall events.
Uniform Distribution:
• Rainfall excess is uniformly distributed over the entire catchment and occurs
at a uniform rate during the specified duration.
Superposition:
• The total runoff hydrograph from complex storms can be obtained by adding
the individual hydrographs from each unit of rainfall excess.
Single Outlet:
• The entire catchment drains through one outlet point where discharge is
measured.
Write short notes on the following: a) (SAR) sodium absorption b) S-hydrograph
c)Unit hydrograph
a) Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):
The Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) is an index used to measure the sodium
hazard of irrigation water. It indicates the proportion of sodium ions relative to
calcium and magnesium ions in water, which affects soil permeability and
structure.
𝑁𝑎+
SAR =
√(𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ )/2
(All concentrations are in milliequivalents per liter.)
• Low SAR (<10): Safe for irrigation.
• High SAR (>18): Harmful; leads to soil dispersion and reduced infiltration.

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Significance:
SAR helps assess the suitability of water for irrigation, ensuring soil fertility and
crop productivity are maintained.
b) S-Hydrograph:
An S-hydrograph (or S-curve) represents the cumulative runoff resulting from a
continuous unit rainfall of 1 cm/hour lasting indefinitely. Its shape resembles the
letter “S.”
Uses:
• To derive unit hydrographs of different durations.
• Useful for runoff prediction from continuous rainfall.
• Helps in flood forecasting and hydrological modeling.
It provides a continuous relationship between rainfall and runoff in a catchment.
c) Unit Hydrograph:
A Unit Hydrograph (UH) is the direct runoff hydrograph resulting from 1 cm of
effective rainfall occurring uniformly over the catchment in a specified duration.
Assumptions:
• Linearity and time invariance.
• Uniform distribution of rainfall over the area and time.
Applications:
• Estimation of runoff hydrographs for given rainfall.
• Flood forecasting and design of hydraulic structures.
• Development of S-hydrographs and hydrographs for varying rainfall
durations.
In short, the unit hydrograph is a key tool for rainfall–runoff analysis in
hydrology.

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 Module 9 Floods
What is the formula of estimation of flood discharge of a river by rational
method?
Formula for Estimation of Flood Discharge by Rational Method (Short Answer):
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐼𝐴
where,
• 𝑄= Peak discharge (m³/s)
• 𝐶= Runoff coefficient (depends on surface type and slope)
• 𝐼= Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for a duration equal to the time of
concentration
• 𝐴= Catchment area (hectares or km², converted to m²)
Note:
When 𝐼is in mm/hr and 𝐴in hectares, the formula becomes:
𝐶𝐼𝐴
𝑄=
360
Use:
The Rational Method is suitable for small catchments (less than 50 km²) and is
commonly used for designing urban drainage systems and small culverts.

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Describe the process of Flood Frequency Studies?
Flood Frequency Studies (Short Answer):
Flood frequency studies involve the statistical analysis of past flood data to
estimate the probability of occurrence of floods of different magnitudes in the
future. It helps determine design floods for hydraulic structures like dams,
bridges, and culverts.
Steps in Flood Frequency Analysis:
1. Data Collection:
o Gather long-term annual peak discharge data from stream gauge records.
2. Data Arrangement:
o Arrange the data in descending order of magnitude and assign a rank (m)
to each flood.
3. Probability Calculation:
o Compute the recurrence interval (T) or return period using:
𝑁+1
𝑇=
𝑚
where,
𝑇= return period (years),
𝑁= total number of years of record,
𝑚= rank of the flood.
4. Plotting Flood Frequency Curve:
o Plot flood magnitude versus recurrence interval or probability on a graph.
5. Fitting Statistical Distribution:
o Fit a probability distribution (e.g., Gumbel, Log-Pearson Type III) to
estimate floods for various return periods.

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 Module 10 Flood Routing:
What is Hydrologic storage Routing?
Hydrologic storage routing is a method used to analyze and predict the outflow
hydrograph from a storage element such as a reservoir, lake, or river reach,
based on a given inflow hydrograph and the storage–discharge relationship of
the system.
Key Concept:
It is based on the continuity equation, which states that the rate of change of
storage in a system equals the difference between inflow and outflow:
𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑂 =
𝑑𝑡
where,
𝐼= inflow rate,
𝑂= outflow rate,
𝑆= storage,
𝑡= time.
Types of Hydrologic Routing:
1. Reservoir Routing – Applied to dams and lakes where storage–outflow
relationships are known.
2. Channel Routing – Applied to river reaches, considering both storage and
translation effects.
Applications:
• Flood forecasting and reservoir operation.
• Designing spillways and flood control structures.
• Determining downstream hydrographs during storm events.

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 2022-2023
What are the assumptions made in unit hydrograph theory?
The Unit Hydrograph (UH) theory is based on several fundamental assumptions
that simplify the complex rainfall–runoff process. The first assumption is that the
watershed is linear, meaning runoff response is directly proportional to the
effective rainfall. Thus, if rainfall excess is doubled, the resulting direct runoff
hydrograph also doubles. The second assumption states that the rainfall excess
is uniformly distributed over the entire catchment area during the storm
duration. The third assumption is that rainfall excess occurs at a constant
intensity throughout the given duration for which the UH is developed. The
fourth assumption is that the base time of the hydrograph is constant,
independent of the magnitude of rainfall excess. Another key assumption is time
invariance, implying the catchment characteristics do not change with time, so
the UH remains applicable for similar conditions. Lastly, the UH represents only
direct runoff and excludes initial abstractions and base flow.
Define w-index and φ-index.
w-Index
The w-index is the average rate of infiltration during the time period in which
rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity and produces runoff. It represents
the minimum average infiltration rate that, when subtracted from the total
rainfall, gives the actual runoff observed. The w-index is always less than the φ-
index because it considers all losses, including infiltration, interception, and
depression storage. It is computed using:
𝑃−𝑅
𝑤=
𝑡
where P = total rainfall, R = runoff depth, t = rainfall duration.
φ-Index
The φ-index is the constant infiltration rate such that the portion of rainfall
above this rate becomes runoff. It is used for simplifying infiltration calculations
in hydrograph analysis. Only the rainfall intensities greater than φ contribute to
effective rainfall or direct runoff. It considers only infiltration, unlike w-index
which includes all losses. The φ-index is determined graphically by adjusting a
horizontal line on the rainfall hyetograph so that the area above it equals the
runoff depth.

19
Describe the various methods of computing average rainfall over a basin.
Discuss the merits and demerits of each one.
Methods of Computing Average Rainfall Over a Basin
The main methods used to estimate average rainfall over a catchment are (i)
Arithmetic Mean Method, (ii) Thiessen Polygon Method, and (iii) Isohyetal
Method.
1. Arithmetic Mean Method:
This is the simplest method where the average rainfall is obtained by taking
the arithmetic mean of rainfall recorded at all gauges in the basin.
Merits: Easy to apply; suitable when rainfall is uniformly distributed and
gauges are evenly spaced.
Demerits: Inaccurate for uneven terrain, irregular gauge distribution, or non-
uniform rainfall.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method:
The basin is divided into polygons around each gauge, and weighted rainfall
is computed based on polygon area.
Merits: Considers non-uniform gauge spacing; more accurate than arithmetic
mean.
Demerits: Does not account for topography or storm movement; accuracy
depends on polygon layout.
3. Isohyetal Method:
Isohyets (lines of equal rainfall) are drawn using gauge data, and rainfall
between isohyets is averaged.
Merits: Most accurate; accounts for terrain effects, storm patterns, and
spatial rainfall variation.
Demerits: Time-consuming; requires skill, dense gauge network, and good
contouring judgment.

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 2023-2024
Define the term “Infiltration”. Describe the factors affecting ng for infiltration on rates.
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. The infiltration
rate depends on soil characteristics and surface conditions.
Factors affecting infiltration rate:
1. Soil texture: Sandy soils have high infiltration; clayey soils have low.
2. Soil structure: Well-aggregated, porous soil increases infiltration.
3. Initial moisture content: Dry soil absorbs water faster than wet soil.
4. Vegetation cover: Roots and organic matter increase soil porosity.
5. Surface conditions: Compaction, crusting, and impervious layers reduce infiltration.
6. Temperature: Higher temperature reduces viscosity, increasing infiltration.
7. Rainfall intensity: If intensity exceeds infiltration capacity, runoff occurs.
8. Land use: Agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation affect soil permeability.
9. Slope: Steeper slopes reduce infiltration due to faster runoff.
Explain with neat sketch the construction on and use of “tipping bucket type recording
gauge.”
A tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that directs rainfall into a two-bucket tipping
mechanism balanced like a seesaw. Each bucket holds a fixed volume of water (e.g., 0.25
mm). When one bucket fills, it tips, empties, and the other bucket moves into position. Each
tip closes an electric circuit, producing a record on a digital counter or data logger.
Construction Parts:
• Funnel
• Tipping bucket assembly
• Reed switch/magnet for recording
• Data logger
• Protective housing
Use:
It is used to measure rainfall intensity and total rainfall with high temporal resolution.

21
Explain the Blaney Criddle formula for estimate evapotranspiration.
The Blaney–Criddle formula estimates consumptive use (evapotranspiration)
based on temperature and daylight hours.
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐾∑(𝑝 × 𝑡)
Where:
• 𝐸𝑇= evapotranspiration
• 𝐾= crop coefficient
• 𝑡= mean monthly temperature (°C)
• 𝑝= monthly percentage of annual daytime hours
The method assumes that evapotranspiration mainly depends on temperature
and sunshine. It is simple and widely used for irrigation planning in areas with
moderate climate.
Explain: surface runoff, sub surface runoff, base flow.
Surface Runoff: Water that flows over the land surface into streams after rainfall
exceeding infiltration capacity. It occurs immediately after storms and produces
peak flow.
Subsurface Runoff (Interflow): Water that infiltrates the soil and moves laterally
through upper soil horizons toward streams. It reaches streams faster than
groundwater but slower than surface runoff.
Base Flow: The portion of streamflow contributed by groundwater seepage. It
maintains river flow during dry periods and represents long-term groundwater
discharge.

22
Explain briefly common used evaporemeter.
The most widely used evaporimeters are:
1. Class A Pan Evaporimeter:
A circular pan (1.21 m diameter, 25 cm deep) filled with water; evaporation is measured
from drop in water level. Used to estimate open-water evaporation and crop
evapotranspiration with pan coefficients.
2. Colorado Sunken Pan:
Similar to Class A pan but half buried in the ground, giving evaporation closer to lake
conditions.
3. US Weather Bureau Floating Pan:
The pan floats on a lake surface, giving very accurate lake evaporation as pan temperature
closely matches water body temperature.
4. Piche Evaporimeter:
A vertical tube with blotting paper strip. Measures potential evaporation, mainly used in
climatological studies.
Define the types of rainfall with neat sketch.
Rainfall is classified based on the mechanism by which air is lifted to produce condensation.
The main types are:
(i) Convectional Rainfall
Occurs when intense heating of the earth’s surface causes warm air to rise, expand, and cool,
leading to heavy showers with thunderstorms.
Sketch description: Upward arrows showing rising warm air → cloud formation → vertical rain
shafts.
(ii) Orographic (Relief) Rainfall
When moist air is forced to rise over mountains or hills, it cools adiabatically and produces
rainfall on the windward side.
Sketch description: Wind arrows hitting a hill → clouds forming on windward slope → rain on
windward; dry “rain shadow” on leeward side.
(iii) Cyclonic (Frontal) Rainfall
Occurs due to the lifting of warm, moist air over a cold air mass along a low-pressure system
or front.
Sketch description: Warm front meeting cold front → sloping frontal surface → layered clouds
and widespread gentle rain.

23
Define hyetograph and mass curve.
Define Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a graphical representation showing rainfall intensity versus time
for a storm event.
• Time is plotted on the x-axis,
• Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) on the y-axis.
It helps determine rainfall peaks, storm duration, and effective rainfall for runoff
estimation.
Sketch description: Bars of different heights representing rainfall intensity at
successive time intervals.
Define Mass Curve
A mass curve (cumulative rainfall curve) is a graph of cumulative rainfall depth
versus time.
It is used to determine:
• Maximum accumulated rainfall,
• Duration of storms,
• Required storage capacity of reservoirs.
Sketch description: A smooth upward-rising curve where each point shows total
rainfall up to that time.
Define Isocrone line.
An isochrone line is a line drawn on a drainage basin map connecting all points
that contribute runoff to the catchment outlet at the same time. It represents
lines of equal travel time of runoff. Isochrones divide the watershed into zones
based on how long water takes to reach the outlet after rainfall. They are used
in developing unit hydrographs, time–area diagrams, and in estimating runoff
timing during storm events.

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What are the factors affecting flood hydrograph? Explain.
A flood hydrograph is influenced by meteorological, physiographical, and land-
use factors:
1. Meteorological Factors
• Rainfall intensity and duration: Higher intensity or longer duration increases
peak discharge.
• Rainfall distribution (spatial & temporal): Uniform rainfall gives sharper
peaks.
• Rainfall type: Convective storms produce high peaks; cyclonic rains give
broader hydrographs.
• Antecedent moisture: Wet soils reduce infiltration and increase runoff.
2. Physiographical Factors
• Catchment size and shape: Fan-shaped basins give sharp peaks; elongated
basins give flatter hydrographs.
• Slope: Steeper slopes increase flow velocity and cause higher peaks.
• Soil type: Impermeable soil increases runoff; sandy soil reduces it.
• Drainage density: Higher drainage density results in quick runoff
concentration.
• Land cover: Forests reduce peak flow; urbanization increases peak
discharge.
3. Channel & Basin Characteristics
• Surface storage, depressions, and ponds reduce flood peaks.
• Stream network characteristics affect travel time and hydrograph shape.

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How do you determine the magnitude of flood of specific return period using
Gumbels method?
1. Assemble data
Take a series of annual maximum floods (one value per year). Assume values
are independent and the process is stationary.
2. Compute sample statistics
𝑋ˉ = sample mean, 𝑠 = sample standard deviation.
3. Non-exceedance probability for return period 𝑇
1
𝐹 =1− .
𝑇
4. Gumbel reduced variate
𝑦 = −ln⁡(−ln⁡ 𝐹).
5. Gumbel frequency factor 𝐾𝑇
Use the relation between Gumbel parameters and sample mean/std. With
Euler’s constant 𝛾 ≈ 0.5772156649,

√6
𝐾𝑇 = (𝑦 − 𝛾).
𝜋
6. Magnitude (flood quantile) for return period 𝑇
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑋ˉ + 𝐾𝑇 𝑠.
Short worked example
Suppose 𝑋ˉ = 100m³/s, 𝑠 = 20m³/s, and 𝑇 = 50years.
• 𝐹 = 1 − 1/50 = 0.98
• 𝑦 = −ln⁡(−ln⁡ 0.98) ≈ 3.90193866
• 𝐾𝑇 = (√6/𝜋)(𝑦 − 𝛾) ≈ 2.59227588
• 𝑄50 = 100 + 2.5923 × 20 ≈ 151.85 m3 /
s.

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Define the flood and define all method to measurement of flood.
Definition of Flood
A flood is an overflow of water that exceeds the carrying capacity of a river
channel, drainage system, or floodplain, causing inundation of normally dry
areas. It occurs when runoff > channel capacity, due to intense rainfall,
snowmelt, dam failure, or storm surges.
Methods of Measurement / Estimation of Flood
1. Direct Methods
1. Gauging Station Records:
Continuous measurement of river discharge using stage–discharge
relationships (rating curves).
2. Current Meter Method:
Measures water velocity across the channel and computes discharge.
3. Area–Velocity Method:
Cross-sectional area × average velocity gives instantaneous flood discharge.
4. Slope-Area Method:
Uses channel slope, roughness (Manning’s equation), and high-water marks
to compute flood flow.
2. Indirect (Hydrological) Methods
1. Rational Method:
Used for small basins; peak flood 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐼𝐴.
2. Unit Hydrograph Method:
Converts rainfall excess into a flood hydrograph for a given storm.
3. Empirical Formulae:
Regional flood formulas like Dicken’s, Ryve’s, Inglis, Fuller’s equations.
4. Frequency Analysis:
Statistical methods (Gumbel, Log-Pearson III) to estimate flood of a given
return period.
5. Hydrologic Modeling:
Computer models (HEC-HMS, SWMM) simulate rainfall–runoff to estimate
flood hydrographs.

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Define various losses of rain water.
Rainfall does not fully contribute to runoff. Some part is lost due to:
1. Interception Loss
Water captured by vegetation, leaves, and structures before reaching the
ground. It later evaporates.
2. Depression Storage
Water temporarily stored in surface depressions, puddles, and irregularities on
the land surface.
3. Infiltration Loss
Water entering the soil surface and contributing to soil moisture and
groundwater.
4. Evaporation Loss
Water lost as vapour directly from the land or water surfaces.
5. Transpiration Loss
Water lost through plant leaves during photosynthesis. Combined with
evaporation, it forms evapotranspiration (ET).
6. Percolation Loss
Water moving deeper from the unsaturated zone to the groundwater zone.

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a Define Coriolis effect. b. Define precipita on. Explain various forms of precipita on. c. Define
index of wetness.
a. Define Coriolis Effect
The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of moving objects (air or water) caused by the
rotation of the Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, moving bodies deflect to the right, and in
the Southern Hemisphere, they deflect to the left. It influences large-scale atmospheric
circulation, ocean currents, cyclones, and wind patterns but has negligible effect on small-
scale water movements. The Coriolis force is zero at the equator and increases toward the
poles.
b. Define Precipitation and Explain Various Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation is any form of water—liquid or solid—that falls from the atmosphere to the
earth’s surface when atmospheric moisture condenses beyond the capacity of air to hold it.
Forms of Precipitation
1. Rain: Liquid water drops falling from clouds when temperature is above freezing.
2. Drizzle: Very fine, small-sized water droplets with low intensity.
3. Snow: Ice crystals formed when water vapour freezes directly in the atmosphere.
4. Sleet: Frozen raindrops or ice pellets formed when liquid droplets pass through a freezing
layer.
5. Hail: Hard ice balls produced by strong updrafts in thunderclouds.
6. Glaze (Freezing Rain): Rainfall that freezes upon contact with cold surfaces.
7. Dew/Frost: Moisture condensing or freezing on cold surfaces (not true precipitation but
often classified in atmospheric moisture forms).
c. Define Index of Wetness
The Index of Wetness is the ratio of the actual annual precipitation of a given year to the
average annual precipitation of a long-term record. It indicates how wet or dry a particular
year is compared to normal conditions.
𝑃actual
Index of Wetness =
𝑃average

Values greater than 1 indicate a wetter year, while values less than 1 indicate a drier year.

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i Define Probable Maximum Precipita on. ii. What do you understand by unit
hydrograph? How is it derived?
i. Define Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is the greatest depth of precipitation
that is meteorologically possible over a given area for a specific duration. It
represents an upper physical limit of rainfall, assuming the most severe
combination of atmospheric conditions (maximum moisture, maximum storm
efficiency, and most critical storm track). PMP is used in the design of spillways,
dams, large reservoirs, and flood-control structures to ensure safety against
extreme hydrological events. It is usually estimated by storm analysis, moisture
maximization, or statistical methods using extreme storm records.
ii. What is a Unit Hydrograph? How is it Derived?
A Unit Hydrograph (UH) is a direct runoff hydrograph produced by 1 cm (or 1
inch) of effective rainfall occurring uniformly over a basin for a specific duration.
It represents the linear response of a watershed to rainfall excess and is widely
used in flood estimation and hydrologic modeling.
Derivation of a Unit Hydrograph
1. Select storm events with uniform rainfall distribution and known durations.
2. Separate base flow from the observed hydrograph to obtain direct runoff
hydrograph (DRH).
3. Compute rainfall excess using infiltration indices (φ-index or w-index).
4. Divide the DRH ordinates by the depth of rainfall excess to reduce it to 1 cm
runoff, producing the unit hydrograph.
5. Average multiple UHs from similar storms to obtain a representative UH for
the catchment.
The UH assumes linearity, time invariance, and uniform rainfall distribution.

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 2024-2025
Describe about hyetograph.
A hyetograph is a graphical representation that shows the variation of rainfall
intensity with time during a storm event. It is plotted with time on the x-axis (in
minutes or hours) and rainfall intensity on the y-axis (in mm/hr). The rainfall
depths for each interval are usually shown as vertical bars, making it easy to
visualize how the storm progressed.
Key Features
• Shows how rainfall intensity changes throughout a storm.
• Helps identify peak intensity, rainfall duration, and dry intervals.
• Useful for determining effective rainfall, runoff, and flood hydrograph
analysis.
• Often used in hydrologic engineering for unit hydrograph derivation,
stormwater design, and flood estimation.
Interpretation
• Tall bars indicate high-intensity rainfall, which can generate large surface
runoff.
• A hyetograph with multiple peaks indicates complex storm behavior.
• The area under the hyetograph gives the total rainfall depth.

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a Differentiate between recording and non-recording types of rain gauges b Describe with a neat sketch the
construction and use of symon’s rain gauge.

(a) Difference Between Recording and Non-Recording Rain Gauges

Recording Rain Gauge Non-Recording Rain Gauge

Continuously records rainfall intensity and time of Measures only total rainfall depth over a period
occurrence. (daily/weekly).

Provides a hyetograph as output. Does not record intensity or time distribution.

Examples: Tipping bucket, Weighing bucket, Float-type

Most common example: Symon’s rain gauge.
(automatic) gauges.

Useful for hydrograph analysis, flood studies, storm Useful for climatological studies where only total
intensity assessment. rainfall is needed.

More complex, requires power or mechanical recording

Simple, inexpensive, and easy to maintain.
systems.

Less accurate for storm analysis because time

Higher accuracy during intense storms.
variation is unknown.

(b) Symon’s Rain Gauge – Construction and Use (Neat Sketch Description)

The Symon’s rain gauge is the most commonly used non-recording rain gauge in India.
It measures daily rainfall depth.

Construction

• A cylindrical outer body made of galvanized iron (200 mm diameter).

• A collecting funnel fitted at the top; the rim is kept 30 cm above ground level.

• A receiver (container) placed below the funnel to store collected rainwater.

• A graduated measuring jar (capacity usually 25 mm or more) used to measure rainfall.

Sketch description:
Outer cylinder → funnel at top → receiving bottle inside → separate measuring glass jar for reading depth.

Use

1. Rain falls into the funnel and is collected in the receiver.

2. At a fixed observation time (usually 08:30 IST daily), the water is poured into the graduated measuring
jar.

3. The depth of rainfall (in mm) is read directly from the jar.

4. The receiver is emptied and replaced for the next 24-hour cycle.

Advantages: simple, robust, low cost, widely used by IMD.

Limitation: Does not record rainfall intensity or temporal variation.

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