Class: All Ist Year Internet and its Applications Code: 22USECG27

Unit – I Internet Concepts

Content:
1. Introduction
1.1 Basic Terms and Concepts.
1.2 What is an Internet?
1.3 Evolution and History of Internet
1.4 Impact of Internet
2. Internet Connection
2.1 Getting Connected
2.2 Accessing the Internet via your Local Networks
2.3 Accessing the Internet via the Telephone System
3. Dial-Up Internet Accounts:
3.1 Conventional Dial-Up / Shell Account
3.2 Protocol Dial-Up Account
3.3 Dial-Up or on-Demand TCP/IP Link through Your LAN
3.4 Dial-UP Connection Pros
3.5 Dial-UP Connection Cons
4. High Speed Connections:
4.1 ISDN Connection
4.2 ADSL Connection
4.3 Cable Modes:
4.3.1. DSL
4.3.2. Leased Line Connections
5. Intranets:
5.1 Connecting LAN to the Internet.

1. Introductions
Internet is one of the toughest things to define, but it doesn’t mean that it is as tough to understand
also. There is no single, because Internet is different thing to different people. Internet has not only brought
about a technological revolution, but it has also initiated a revolution in corporate computing. With result,
many of forward thinking companies realized a few years ago, that Internet technology could also be used
on their existing internal networks to build quicker and cheaper business applications. This Internal use of
Internet has become known as the “INTERNET”.
1.1 Basic Terms and Concepts
Internet: It might be helpful to think of the Internet as a vast system of roads all connecting to each
other. You may have heard the term “information superhighway.” It’s a vast infrastructure of pathways
allowing computers to “talk” to each other, even though the computers may use different operating
systems. They do this through unique identification numbers called Internet Protocol Addresses (IP
addresses).
The abbreviation “www” stands for World Wide Web. Many people think the World Wide Web is
the same thing as the Internet. It isn’t. While the Internet is a large connection of networks (hardware), the
World Wide Web is a way to access the information on the Internet. It’s like the software you need to run
programs on the hardware of your computer. So, the Internet is broader than the World Wide Web.
The Web uses common communication protocols (sets of rules) and special languages. One of these
is called HyperText Markup Language (HTML). These special languages act as a bridge, allowing

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computers to communicate that don’t use compatible operating systems. This means that you don’t have to
use a specific type of computer in order to access a website.
Besides the Web, there are other ways to disseminate information, such as email, File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), and Telnet.
1.2 What is an Internet?
The Internet Sometimes called “the Net”, is a worldwide system of computer networks- a network
of networks in which users at any one computer can get information from any other computer.
It is difficult to define Internet, as it encompasses a wide variety of services. Some of the
expressions given in this context are listed below:
 Internet, the mega-network connecting millions of people, is tremendous phenomenon. The
web, an offshoot of this global resource, has revolutionized the way information is passed
on.
 It is the name for a vast, worldwide system consisting of people, information, and
computers.
 It is a network of networks.
 It is an unlimited commercial opportunity.
 It is a set of computers talking over fibre optics, phone lines, satellite links, and other media.
 It is a cyber-space where data-surfing can be done.
 It is an ocean of information.
 It is a gold mine of professionals from all fields sharing information about their work.
 It is world-wide interconnected system of thousands of computer networks each network in
turn links thousands of computers together.
The Internet is a global collection of computer networks that are linked together by devices called
routers and use a common set of protocols for data transmission known as TCP/IP (transmission control
protocol / Internet protocol).
The primary purpose of the Internet is to facilitate the sharing of information. There are many
different tools used on the Internet to make this possible. Some of the more common tools include email,
list servers, newsgroups, telnet, gopher, FTP, and the World Wide Web. Probably the most popular of all
Internet tools is the World Wide Web.
1.3 Evolution and History of Internet
The Internet is a recent innovation, when in fact the essence of it has been around for over a quarter
century. The underpinnings of the Internet are formed by the global interconnection of hundreds of
thousands of otherwise independent computers, communication entities and information systems.
In the early days of ARPANET, there were four computers in the United States attached to the
network. Today, there are millions all over the world. Most people define the Internet as a collection of
computer networks, but what exactly is a network? A network is a group of two or more computers
connected together with cables that allow the computers to share information.
Computers that are “on the Internet” all use the same protocols to send information back and forth,
allowing them to communicate with each other. As long as a computer uses these protocols, it doesn't
matter what type of hardware or software it uses.
In the Internet's early days (the 1960s and 1970s), only government, military, and educational
institutions had computers connected to the Internet. The Internet was originally designed for research and
scholarly communication. But as it grew, its services became more popular, and new ways of using the

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Internet multiplied. For example, the Internet began to be used for informal communication, entertainment,
and eventually commerce, as more businesses connected to the Internet in the 1990s.
According to statistics compiled by Nua Internet Surveys Ltd., some 605.60 million people
worldwide were connected to the Internet as of September 2002. Today, the Internet remains decentralized,
but it is no longer structured entirely around government computers. It is comprised of independently
owned and managed individual networks of all sizes.
The larger networks with high-speed connections are sometimes called backbone providers. Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) lease Internet connections from the backbone providers and sell connections (also
called Internet accounts) to consumers. Most home and small business users connect to the Internet with
dial-up accounts to ISPs using a modem and special communications software.
Uses for the Internet
The Internet has a special significance for the library community because it allows patrons -- both
children and adults -- who do not have computers to keep up with the Internet for business and academic
purposes. Libraries, to a great extent, help bridge what is called the "digital divide." The services listed
below would be unattainable for many unless they were provided free of charge by the community's public
library.
· E-mail allows libraries and patrons to send messages back and forth to individuals or groups.
· Telnet allows libraries and patrons to connect to a remote computer and use it as if you were
there.
· File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows libraries to transfer files to and from other computers.
· Usenet allows libraries and patrons to participate in group discussions on specific topics.
· Internet Relay Chat (IRC) allows libraries and patrons to chat in real time with one or many users.
· World Wide Web allows libraries and patrons access to literally millions of Web sites worldwide.
1.4 Impact of Internet
The term Internet refers to the global network of public computers running Internet protocol. In
other words, the Internet, sometimes called “the net” is a worldwide system of computer networks that
allows users to send and receive information from other computer.
Today, the Internet is one of the most powerful tools throughout the world. Using Internet has more
advantages than disadvantages.
Advantages
 Communication – The foremost target of internet has always been the effective
communication. Thought Internet can communicate in a fraction of seconds with a person
who is sitting in the others part of the world.
 E-mail – E-mail is now an essential communication tools in business. With e-mail you can
send and receive instant electronic messages, which work like writing letters. E-mail is free
and fast when compared to telephone, fax and postal services.
 24 Hours a day - 7 days a week – Even if no staff is in office, visitors will come to website
using Internet.
 Information – There is a huge amount of information available on the Internet for about
every subject, ranging from govt. law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market, new
ideas, & technical support. Search for any kind of data for any subject by using search
engines such as Google, yahoo, msn etc.
 Online Chat – To can access many chat rooms on the web that can be used to meet new
people make new friends as well as to stay in touch with old friends.

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 Services – Many services one available on net such as net banking, reservation, job
searching, matrimonial services, purchasing tickets, guidance services on array of topics
engulfing the every aspect of life.
 Communities – communities of all types have spring up on the Internet. It’s a great way to
meet up with people of similar interest & discuss common issues.
 E-Commerce – To can also shop online through different online stores and sites that can be
used to look for products as well as buy them using credit card.
 Software Downloads –To can fuel download innumerable, software like utilities, games,
videos, movies etc, from the Internet.
Disadvantages
 Theft of personal Information – If use the Internet, your personal information such as your
name, address, etc. can be accessed by other people. If use a credit card to shop online, then
credit card information can also be stolen this could be akin to giving someone a blank
check.
 Negative effects on family communication.
 Internet addition.
 Spamming – This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve no purpose and
unnecessary clog up the entire system.
 Virus threat.
 Pornography – This is a very serious issue concerning the internet, especially when it
comes to young children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet that can
be easily found and can be determent to setting children use the Internet.
2. Internet Connection Concepts
2.1 Getting Connected
Since Internet is a composite network of more than thousands of discrete networks, each
having its own rules and procedures, there could be many different ways by which can connect to
the Internet.
To use the Internet need three things:
 A Computer
 Client Programs to run on computer
 To connect computers to the net so that clients can service requests.
2.2 Accessing the Internet via Local Networks
If want to connect to Local Area Network (LAN) to the Internet, will need different
software and hardware than that if want to have dial-up access through PC and modem at home.
When a user LAN works on one of these computers, user has access to all the programs
installed on that particular computer. When user’s client needs access to an Internet services, it will
use the network connection automatically.
2.3 Accessing the Internet via the Telephone System
Some users use the Internet by connecting to another computer over a phone line. In this
type of configuration, the user runs a communications program on user computer to dial the phone.
Another computer answers the phone, and user program communicates with the program on the
other end and establishes a connection.
Now the user can work, during which the remote computer provides access to the Internet.
Once the user finishes the task, user breaks the connection by asking user communications program
to disconnect.
Thus to access the Internet over a phone line, user need:

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 A Computer
 A modem to connect to the ISP
 An available telephone line
 The appropriate software, including a communications program
 A telephone number to connect to a remote Internet computer
3. Dial-Up Internet Accounts
Dial-Up connections are one type of Internet connection available from ISPs. A Dial-Up connection
allows us to connect to the Internet via a local server using a standard 56k modem. Dial-Up connection are
the slowest and the most inexpensive.
To Access the Internet via phone line, the procedure is simple. Connect computer to the telephone
line using either a regular phone line(with a modem) or an ISDN line (which requires special equipment).
To start works, run a communication program to dial the phone and establish a connection with a remote
Internet host.

Figure 3.1 Components of a Dial-Up Connection

Once the connection is established, logon to the server by entering user name and password. At this
point there are three possible types of dial-up connections:
 Conventional Dial-Up/Shell account access
 Protocol Dial-Up (TCP/IP) account access
 Dial-Up or on-Demand TCP/IP Link through LAN
3.1 Conventional Dial-Up / Shell Account
Shell Account actually does the work on the remote computer. That establishes an
interactive session with another computer which is an Internet host. The desktop assumes the role of
a ASCII terminal. Shell access the host/provider computer is considered part of the Internet, but
computer is not. The only program that runs on computer is the terminal emulator. When connect to
provider, type commands to its system, which tells it what functions want to perform. The program
provider’s computer that receives and acts on the commands is known as a shell.
The shell and the programs running on it send back to computer some text which is
displayed on the screen. A terminal emulator only supports a text-based interface, not a graphical
interface. Users are usually limited to running one client at a time.

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3.2 Protocol Dial-Up (TCP/IP) Account

A protocol dialup account lets computer behave like it’s connected directly to another
computer on the internet. When it is really connected over a phone line whenever dialup. It enables
to run software, such as a graphical web browser like Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape
Navigator. In which functions in computer’s native environment instead of forcing to deal with
plain text programs like the text-only browser Lynx and UNIX.
This implies that when a protocol dialup account that computer has is a full-fledged Internet
host during the time user is connected. The client programs use to access the various Internet
services run on that computer. To can use as many clients as user want at the same time.
For example, if want to start 4 programs – a web client, a gopher client, a mail client and
switch back and forth from one to the other. This type of connection is also known as TCP/IP type
of account as it uses the TCP/IP protocol to perform data transfer on the Internet.

Figure 3.2 Layering of TCP/IP Protocols

PPP and SLIP
The stack of Internet protocols (technical specifications) is called TCP/IP. The connection
protocol with ISPs server is known as PPP(point to point protocol), which is used in Indian context,
although there are other connection types such as SLIP or CSLIP which are available from other
Internet Service Providers in the world. But to satisfaction can be sure that PPP is the most recent
and advanced connection protocol.
The function of IP is to move the raw data from one place to another. Thus, the protocol
developed to support TCP/IP over a serial cable was called Serial Line IP or SLIP. SLIP was
designed at 1980s and to be a simple, but not very powerful method of connecting 2 IP devices over
a serial cable connection.
PPP is more powerful, more dependable, more flexible, and is a lot easier to configure when
user need to get it up and running on a new system.

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TCP/IP Software
This software are bundled with new operating systems such as window. There are also
called TCP/IP sockets. If don’t have it along with our OS can have third party socket software’s
such as Trumpet Winsock. It is important to run this software and to get connected to ISP before
can do the browsing part.
Web Browser
Web Browser is client software which has various graphic capabilities to access the
information from the Internet. Modern web browsers are capable of browsing World Wide Web,
Gopher sites, FTP sites and also provide facilities for E-mail, etc. Now, web browsers from
Netscape and from Microsoft are the user’s choice and can get hold of any such browser and start
browsing the Internet.
3.3 Dial-Up or on-Demand TCP/IP Link through Your LAN
A dial-up link form LAN is the intermediate step between individual dial-up and a dedicated
high-speed link. It is therefore somewhat like dial-up and somewhat like having a direct link.
The main difference between this type of connection and one to individual computer is that
the TCP/IP software runs on the LAN, either on a dial-up connection or a direct connection is the
most common type of IP connection, much more common than a personal dial-up IP connection.
3.4 Dial-UP Connection Pros
 Dial-Up connections can be very economical. The cost is usually the same as a local phone
call.
 Hardware cost is also minimal
 Such connections are widely available.
3.5 Dial-UP Connection Cons
 Dial-Up connections are very slow compared to other connections/types.
 Same phone line cannot be used for internet connection and for making phone calls.
 Such connections transfer data over an analogue live so data before being transferred has to
be converted from digital to analogue and vise-versa, thus increases performance overheads.
4. High Speed Connections:
High-Speed Internet is delivered with one of two Broadband technologies. The first
technology is physical wire and cables to connect the networks to the Internet, and this is called
Wired broadband (e.g., Fiber Optic Cable). The other is wireless technology (e.g., Cellular 5G), and
it’s called Wireless Broadband. Each connection method is capable of providing high-speed
Internet, but each differs in its own way.
The term Broadband was introduced in the late 1990’s and it commonly refers to high-speed
Internet access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial-up access (Maximum of
56kBits/s) 1. Broadband is accessed through various high-speed transmission technologies that
allow the data to move faster.
4.1 ISDN Connection
ISDN is abbreviation of integrated services digital network. ISDN is an international
communications standard for sending voice, video and data over digital telephone lines of
normal telephone lines or normal telephone wires. ISDN supports data transfer rates of 64
Kbps (64,000 bits per seconds).
There are two types of ISDN:
1. Basic Rate Interface(BRI): It consists of two 64-Kbps B-Channels and one
D-Channels for transmitting control information.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI): It consists of 23 B-Channels and one D-Channel

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The original version of ISDN employs baseband transmission. Another version called B-
ISDN uses broadband transmission and is able to support transmission rates of 1.5 Mbps. B-ISDN
requires fibre optic cables and is not widely available.
Advantage of ISDN:
 Digital services with less errors.
 Direct fast connection with no dialing
 Higher bandwidth (takes less time in downloading material)
 Able to use ISDN for more than one task example: Surf & telephone
 Permits use of never technologies example: Video Phone
 Streaming Video or audio without disruption.
 Video Conferencing – multiple recipients
 Supports multiple users
 ISDN offers excellent line quality compared to a rather noisy analogue line.
Disadvantage of ISDN
 ISDN is more expensive to install than a standard telephone.
 ISDN is more expensive to rent per month than a standard telephone line.
 Not easy to set up. An engineer has to fit the system in home.
 All exchanges do not provide ISDN service.
ISDN Services
ISDN Telephony: The analog voice channel is converted according to pulse code
modulation into a digital data sequence. The speech quality can be decisively improved by
frequency band extension up to kHs.
ISDN telecopy: The transmission of a facsimile sized A4 via common fax machines needs
between one and three minutes.
ISDN and analog terminals: Its also called Terminal Adapters. It is possible to run
telephones, fax machines and modems.
Call Forwarding: This enables the ISDN user to direct his incoming calls at any time to a
destination number of choice.
Call Waiting: The ISDN offers the opportunity, during an active call to accept a signal
acknowledging another incoming call either acoustically or visually.
CLIP: This enables the subscriber to know beforehand the number of the person calling
him. This is made possible by “Calling Line Identification Presentation” . However, this function
works only if the calling party too is using ISDN.
CLIR: Calling Line Identification Restriction, the calling party’s number is directed to the
exchange and from there to the ISDN subscriber to enable him to know who is calling before
picking up the telephone.
Three-party conference: This service facilitates a three-way telephone communication.
Advice of Change: The cost of a call is transmitted to the subscriber and is displayed on the
subscriber’s telephone equipped with a display.
Malicious call identification: if this service is supported by operator, a special signal is sent
to the exchange that records the phone number of the malicious caller.
ISDN, apart from these services, also offers many other comfort services such as direct
dialing and is best suited for data communication. Its routers facilitate remote access to LAN. These
devices perform functions such as data coding (encryption), firewall and channel compression of
existing B-channels. Using these routers, Internet Service Providers(ISPs) can offer their clients
safe Internet access of 64Kbps.

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4.2 ADSL Connection

ADSL an acronym for asymmetric digital subscriber line, is a part of a family of technologies based
on the DSL concept. It is a new data communication technology that allows faster data transmission. Over
copper telephone lines than a Conventional Voice band modem can provide. ADSL supports 1.5 to 9 Mbps
data rates when receiving data (downstream rate) and from 16 to 640 Kbps when sending data (upstream
data). ADSL requires a special ADSL modem. ADSL is growing in popularity as more areas around the
world gain access.
Advantages of ADSL
 ADSL provides uninterrupted connection.
 ADSL provides data and voice Transmission simultaneously over same telephone line at
same lines.
 ADSL has faster speed, chipper cost as ADSL uses copper lines.
Disadvantages of DSL
 Not available everywhere easily.
 Special equipment have to be installed at the telephone exchange and users must be located
within 5.5 Km of the exchange.
 Network congestion and line noise are very much possible.
 The modem/router supplied with ADSL service does not support use of computer fax
application.
4.3 Cable Modes:
In the industry there are many different types of cables being used all with various purposes and
features.
Getting to the core
Single mode fiber cables have a smaller core from 8 to 10 micrometers and can only support one
type of data transmission mode. This type of cable is preferred for long-haul installations and is generally
more expensive to install.
Multimode fiber cables have a core of 50 or 62.5 micrometers, or even larger in diameter and can
support multiple data transmission modes. Multimode fiber is used for shorter distances and are considered
easier to install and align because of the larger cores.
Single Mode vs Multimode Fiber Cables: Bandwidth
One primary difference between single mode and multimode fiber optical cables is bandwidth. Due
to the smaller size of the single mode fiber optic cable, only one signal of light can go through the fiber at a
time. Because of this and the fact that they operate with lasers that work in wavelengths, the signal is
stronger and can go a further distance than with multimode fiber cables.
Difference in distance and color
With multimode fiber cables the signal becomes degraded after a set distance depending on the
grade type; this is not an issue with singlemode fiber cables. The grades for multimode cables are from
OM1-OM5 with each grade having a different bandwidth capacity. Higher bandwidth enables a multimode
fiber to support a longer transmission distance. For example, an OM1 cable will support 1 Gbit/sec for a
distance of 100 ft or 33 m, while an OM4 cable will support 10 Gbits/sec for a distance of 1,312 ft or 400
m.
Another important distinction between both types of cables is in their color-coding. Singlemode
cables are typically yellow, and multimode cables are usually aqua or orange.

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4.3.1. DSL
Digital Subscriber Line(DSL) uses a normal PSTN phone line. But using DSL can use both
Internet and phone simultaneously. Therefore many prefer DSL to PSTN dial up.
Advantages of DSL
 The speed of DSL connections is fast. 64Kbps, 512Kbps, 15Mbps and higher speed
can be achieved in DSL connections.
 DSL also provides ‘Always On’ connection 24 hrs a day always.
 It can always use our phone while using Internet.
Disadvantage of DSL
 More expensive.
 To need an ADSL modem to connect but the distance between this modem and our
computer cannot be more than 1800 feet.
4.3.2. Leased Line Connections
A Leased Line is a symmetric telecommunication line connecting two locations. Leased line
connection is a permanent telephone connection between two points set up by a telecommunication
common carrier. Leased lines are used by business to connect geographically distant offices. A
digital line is a product singularly suited to the emerging needs of the medium to large corporation.
Connecting LAN using a digital, leased line provides a fast, reliable, permanent access.
A digital leased-line is a managed dedicated digital connection providing 24 hour access.
Network users have access to e-mail, WWW, FTP as well as line one-on-one and one-to-many
communications. It provides networking within the world.
If have a leased-line do not need a modem or an ISDN terminal adapter to connect two
systems. It is always open. One end of leased-line connection is configured as the initiator and the
other end is configured as the terminator. The fee for the connection is a fixed monthly rate.
For example – a T-1 channel is a type of leased line that provides maximum transmission
speed of 1.544mbps.
Advantage of Leased-line:
 Provides Secure and private dedicated connections
 It can be laid for up to distances of 35km
 Used for people requiring extra high bandwidth.
 Provides symmetrical, uncontended high speed connetion.
 It is reliable and dependable.
Disadvantage of Leased-line
 It is very expensive to install
 Not suitable for single or home workers.
 Lead times can be as long as 54 working days.
 Distance dependent to nearest POP
5. Intranet
The first Web browser was called Mosaic, and the HTML concept, although not a new one, has
accelerated data access and research. In short, the idea was that although books presented information in a
linear fashion, people more often than not have a need to follow it in a three dimensional pattern.
A lot of desired material could be obtained and the person doesn’t have to even know what the
XYZ Company is. Before the advent of HTML, either the person would have turned to the index page at
the back of the book to look for XYZ Company, or even had to go to find another book to learn about the
fractals.

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Now with the use of HTML, a simple click on the word XYZ Company would take him to an
entirely different reference that explains what the company is and what it does. After reading, a hit on the
back button would navigate him back to the exact place in the document he had been reading earlier.
Every portion of the Internet was designed with the forethought to make it robust and easy to use.
Even though a number of mistakes had been made during the development and some backtracking has been
necessary, but, generally speaking, Internet has proven to be one of the easiest way to use systems ever
evolved.
This could probably be the reason that the Internet has grown so fast and so vast. The Internet has
grown to over 250 million users within 12 years and has already become an integral part of our daily lives.
The literal meaning of the term Intranet as given in various dictionaries is as follows:
In' tra net - n.
1) a network connecting an affiliated set of clients using standard Internet protocols,
especially TCP/IP and HTTP.
2) an IP-based network of nodes behind a firewall, or behind several firewalls connected by
secure, possibly virtual networks.
An Intranet is the use of Internet technologies within an organisation (or company) to achieve better
results than the conventional means of data access and transfer. The Intranet helps in cutting costs and easy
and fast accessibility of day-to-day information.
It could refer to a collection of networks at different locations, but catering to the requirements of
the same organisation.
How does Intranet Work?
An Intranet can be defined as a private network which uses Internet tools. The principal
tool is the Web browser, but there are other Internet tools such as ftp and telnet that are useful. The
resources defined as private may be protected physically (with a firewall or a separate physical
network), geographically (by restricting access to computers with a network address on the local
network), or personally (by username and password).
Typically, resources will be private either because they are confidential to the organisation
(for example, an internal telephone directory), or because they are covered by restrictive licenses
(for example, if the Library subscribes to a bibliography whose license restricts its use to members
of the University).

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The language used is HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML) and the protocol that both Intranets
and the Internet use is called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP.
A network server supports all the activities of an Intranet. On the clients’ side, a software, known as
a browser, is used. (The browser is usually either Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer.) The browser,
when invoked, seeks a server computer through the communication medium that has the first page or
Home Page of the Intranet, which is usually seen in the folders as ‘[Link]’.
This is the default page for accessing the Intranet from any computer attached to an internal
network. This is what automatically appears on the screen when a user logs in and clicks on the browser
icon on the desktop for accessing the Internet also.
The hyperlinks to specific files or databases requests for files send the control from anywhere on
the network to the browser. The server accesses the file and sends back a copy of what it contains to the
computer or client that has requested for it. It is the simplicity of TCP/IP that makes Intranets so easy to
set-up. Web browsers can be used to connect to virtually any information source, from Structured Query
Language (SQL) databases to highly proprietary information systems.
How big can an Intranet be?
An Intranet can be as big as a community of interest. Scale is an important factor in web
implementation, but it has no bearing on the logical association of clients that make up an Intranet.
For example, a workgroup with one web server, a company with several hundred web-servers, and
a professional organisation with ten thousand web servers can each be considered an Intranet.
While nothing constrains these webs to be “inside” or bounded in any physical sense, size is a
significant consideration from a network design perspective.
How is it different from Internet?
Generally an Intranet is different from an Internet in the following ways:
i. Intranet is a network within the organisation whereas Internet is a worldwide
network.
ii. Intranet has access to Internet but not vice- versa.
Once the difference has been defined, the immediate possible question in everyone’s mind
would be: Is an Intranet faster than getting data over the Internet? The answer to this would be a
mix of features of the local area network (LAN) as well as those of the Internet.
A clear answer depends on the possible ways of connecting the client to the network that
could be as follows:
• If the network is totally contained within a LAN, then it will get LAN speeds. i.e., the web
server is connected via LAN to the client computers.
• If users are connecting remote locations, and use the Internet as the backbone / transport,
then the speed becomes dependent on the Internet itself, and the speeds by which it is connected.
• If performance is really the issue, users could also run the Intranet over private lines, such
as frame relay. Then it can actually contract with the phone company for actual performance levels
of speed, i.e., 56 kbps, 256 kbps, etc.
• Approximately the Intranet operates at 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps internal and 33.6 kbps for
remote access employees.
The answer to the question, “Which is right for business, the Intranet or the Internet?”
purely depends on how the application is viewed. The major difference between the Internet and an
Intranet is the focus: An Internet site looks outward from the company, and an Intranet site is
usually for internal use only.

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5.1 Connecting LAN to the Internet

It is certainly possible that both Intranets and the Internet can coexist. As spelt theoretically,
the entire Intranet could be located at a remote site and users who are spread over a number of
geographical locations can be permitted to access the data using secure links.
Though cutting off the Intranet from outside world physically would make it function like a
local network, it has its own advantages. The main advantage being a higher level of security
The immediate disadvantage is that if the organisation has remote locations it will have to
evolve methods for permitting the employees or users to log on to the Intranet. When it comes to
comparison between the Intranet and LAN, it can be clearly observed that an Intranet is a network
within the organisation whereas LAN is a campus wide network; geography plays a vital role.
Intranet may be considered as a group of LAN’s of an organisation connected together.
They could be connected through a WAN architecture. Naturally, all the facilities that are available
in client/server architecture are also applicable here.

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Unit – II Email Concepts

Content:
1. Email Concepts
2. Email Addressing
3. Email Basic commands
4. Sending and Receiving Files by E-mail
5. Controlling e-mail volume
6. Sending and Receiving Secure e-mail.

1. E-mail concepts:
Electronic mail, commonly shortened to “email,” is a communication method that uses electronic devices
to deliver messages across computer networks. "Email" refers to both the delivery system and individual
messages that are sent and received.
Email has existed in some form since the 1970s, when programmer Ray Tomlinson created a way to
transmit messages between computer systems on the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET). Modern forms of email became available for widespread public use with the development of
email client software (e.g. Outlook) and web browsers, the latter of which enables users to send and receive
messages over the Internet using web-based email clients (e.g. Gmail).
Today, email is one of the most popular methods of digital communication. Its prevalence and security
vulnerabilities also make it an appealing vehicle for cyber attacks like phishing, domain spoofing,
and business email compromise (BEC).
How does email work?
Email messages are sent from software programs and web browsers, collectively referred to as email
‘clients.’ Individual messages are routed through multiple servers before they reach the recipient’s email
server, similar to the way a traditional letter might travel through several post offices before it reaches its
recipient’s mailbox.
Once an email message has been sent, it follows several steps to its final destination:
1. The sender’s mail server, also called a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA), initiates a Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP) connection.
2. The SMTP checks the email envelope data — the text that tells the server where to send a
message — for the recipient’s email address, then uses the Domain Name System (DNS) to
translate the domain name into an IP address.
3. The SMTP looks for a mail exchange (MX) server associated with the recipient’s domain
name. If one exists, the email is forwarded to the recipient’s mail server.
4. The email is stored on the recipient’s mail server and may be accessed via the Post Office
Protocol (POP)* or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). These two protocols function
slightly differently: POP downloads the email to the recipient’s device and deletes it from the
mail server, while IMAP stores the email within the email client, allowing the recipient to
access it from any connected device.
To continue the postal system analogy, imagine Alice writes a thank-you note to Bob. She hands
the letter to the mail carrier (MTA), who brings it to the post office to be sorted. At the post office,
a processing clerk (SMTP) verifies the address written on the envelope. If the address appears to be
written correctly and corresponds to a location that can receive mail (MX server), another mail
carrier delivers the letter to Bob’s mailbox. After picking up the mail, Bob might keep the note in

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his desk drawer, where he can only access it at that location (POP) or put it in his pocket to read at
any location (IMAP).
*The current version of the POP protocol is named POP3.
What are the parts of an email?
An individual email is made up of three primary components: the SMTP envelope, the header, and
the body.
SMTP envelope
The SMTP “envelope” is the data communicated between servers during the email delivery process.
It consists of the sender’s email address and the recipient’s email address. This envelope data tells
the mail server where to send the message, just as a mail carrier references the address on an
envelope in order to deliver a letter to the correct location. During the email delivery process, this
envelope is discarded and replaced every time the email is transferred to a different server.
Header
Like the SMTP envelope, the email header provides critical information about the sender and
recipient. Most of the time, the header matches the information provided in the SMTP envelope, but
this may not always be the case. For instance, a scammer may disguise the source of a message by
using a legitimate email address in the header of an email. Because the recipient only sees the
header and body of an email — not the envelope data — they may not know the message is
malicious.
The header may also contain a number of optional fields that allow the recipient to reply to,
forward, categorize, archive, or delete the email. Other header fields include the following:
o The ‘Date’ field contains the date the email is sent. This is a mandatory header field.
o The ‘From’ field contains the email address of the sender. If the email address is
associated with a display name, that may be shown in this field as well. This is also a
mandatory header field.
o The ‘To’ field contains the email address of the recipient. If the email address is
associated with a display name, that may be shown in this field as well.
o The ‘Subject’ field contains any contextual information about the message the sender
wants to include. It is displayed as a separate line above the body of an email.
o The ‘Cc’ (carbon copy) field allows the sender to send a copy of the email to
additional recipients. The recipients marked in the ‘To’ field can see the email
address(es) listed in the ‘Cc’ field.
o The ‘Bcc’ (blind carbon copy) field allows the sender to send a copy of the email to
additional recipients. The recipients marked in the ‘To’ field cannot see the email
address(es) listed in the ‘Bcc’ field.
Body
The body of an email contains any information the sender wishes to send: text, images,
links, videos, and/or other file attachments, provided that they do not exceed the email
client’s size restrictions. Alternatively, an email can be sent without any information in the
body field.
Depending on the options provided by the email client, the body of an email can be
formatted in plain text or HTML. Plain text emails do not contain any special formatting
(like non-black font colors) or multimedia (like images). They are compatible with all
devices and email clients. HTML emails do allow formatting and multimedia within the
body field, though some HTML elements may get flagged as spam by email filtering
systems or may not display properly on incompatible devices or clients.

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What is an email client?

An email client is a software program or web application* that enables users to send,
receive, and store emails. Popular email clients include Outlook, Gmail, and Apple Mail.
Software- and web-based email clients each have advantages and disadvantages. Desktop
email clients often come with more robust security capabilities, streamline email
management across multiple accounts, provide offline access, and allow users to back up
emails to their computers. By contrast, web-based clients are usually cheaper and easier to
access — since users can log in to their account from any web browser — but are reliant on
an Internet connection and can be more susceptible to cyber attacks.
*Originally, ‘email’ referred to desktop email clients and ‘webmail’ referred to web-based
email clients. Today, the term ‘email’ encompasses both systems.
What is an email address?
An email address is a unique string of characters that identifies an email account, or
‘mailbox,’ where messages can be sent and received. Email addresses are formatted in three
distinct parts: a local-part, an “@” symbol, and a domain.
For example, in the email address employee@[Link], “employee” denotes the local-
part and “[Link]” denotes the domain.
Imagine addressing a letter: the domain signifies the city where the recipient lives, while the
local-part specifies the street and house number at which the letter can be received.
Local-part
The local-part tells the server the final location of an email message. It may include a
combination of letters, numbers, and certain punctuation marks (like underscores). The
maximum number of characters for an email address (including both the local-part and
domain) is 320, though the recommended length is capped at 254 characters.
Domain
The domain may be a domain name, like [Link], or an IP address, like [Link]. In
the former case, the SMTP protocol uses DNS to translate a domain name into its IP address
before delivering the message to the next server.
Like the local-part, the domain also has to adhere to certain formatting requirements
established by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Approved domain names may
include a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and hyphens. An email
address can also be formatted with an IP address in brackets instead of a domain name,
although this is rare. The character limit for a domain name is 63.
Is email secure?
Although email is often used to exchange confidential information, it is not a secure system
by design. This makes it an attractive target for attackers, who may intercept an unencrypted
message, spread malware, or impersonate legitimate organizations. Other email security
threats include social engineering, domain spoofing, ransomware, spam, and more.
One of email’s most significant vulnerabilities is its lack of built-in encryption, leaving the
contents of an email visible to any unauthorized party that might intercept or otherwise gain
access to the message.
In an attempt to make email more secure, many email clients offer one of two basic
encryption capabilities: Transport Layer Security encryption (or ‘TLS encryption’) and end-
to-end encryption (or 'E2EE'). During TLS encryption, messages are encrypted during
transit (from user to server or server to user), and the email service provider retains
possession of the private key used to set up this encryption. The email service provider can

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therefore see the unencrypted contents of the email. During end-to-end encryption (from
user to user), messages can only be decrypted by the sender and recipient of the email.
2. E-mail Addressing:
An address in an email helps you greet the recipient and establish the tone you want. Drafting this
component of your email involves considering who the recipient is and whether the ensuing message is
formal or informal. Understanding how to address an email can help you convey your message in a
professional manner.
Why it's important to address an email
While you may send an email without addressing the recipient, it's best to include some type of
greeting. Here are some reasons to consider personally addressing your emails:

 It creates a sense of personalization. Including a recipient's name in an email you send can make
the email seem more personal. They may enjoy knowing that your email wasn't part of an
impersonal mass distribution, and it can help establish respect between you and the recipient.
 It ensures you follow proper email etiquette. Just like the subject line and the body, the address is
a part of an email's construction. Including the address in an email may indicate to the recipient that
you're aware of
 It establishes the tone. There's a big difference between the way people greet recipients in an
email. The way you address an email sets the tone for the rest of your message, so your greeting lets
the reader know whether your email is casual, informative or serious.
How to address an email
Whether you're sending an email for business or personal reasons, use the following steps to craft the right
address:
1. Determine the recipient
In most situations, you may already know your recipient. In case you want to send a professional email or
query to a specific address but don't have the recipient's name, you can consider what information you have
available. If you know the name of the department, you can check the company's website first to try and
locate a specific name to include in your greeting. If you still can't find a name, you can opt for a generic
greeting such as "Hello," or "To Whom It May Concern,".

2. Choose a tone
If you're unsure about the tone of your email, you may consider who your recipient is. If you're emailing a
colleague that you speak to regularly, you can use a casual and informal greeting. If you're emailing a
manager, a client or an executive, it's best to use a more formal and professional greeting.

3. Select a greeting
Once you know who you're writing to and the tone of the email you're sending, select an appropriate
greeting. If you're writing a formal email, open with a salutation followed by their title, their last name and
a comma or a colon. For example, you can write "Dear Mr. Smith," in your address. If you don't know their
preferred gender, you can address them by their full name, which would look like "Dear Mark Smith,". If
you're writing an informal email, select a more casual salutation such as "Hi, Mark,".

Tips for addressing an email

Before you send your email, carefully consider whether you chose the right way to address the recipient.
Use these tips to help you address an email appropriately:

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 Use the right spelling of their name. Make sure to spell your recipient's name correctly. If you
don't know how to spell their name, locate it on their company's website.
 Be specific. Instead of using a generic greeting like "To Whom It May Concern," look up your
recipient's contact name to address them specifically. This shows that you took the time to get the
right name, and it can prevent your email from feeling overly formal.
 Reserve informal greetings for your close friends. Limit your use of exclamation points so that
you can maintain a professional image. Only include casual addresses if you're corresponding with
someone with whom you have a personal and professional relationship.
 Imitate your recipient's style. Consider the previous emails your recipient may have sent you.
When you use a similar style to the one they used in their emails, you're likely to receive a
favorable response. For example, if they prefer formal greetings, greet them in a similar manner.
3. E-mail Basic Commands:
Email Commands
Use commands to add meaning to your emails for you and your team. Through the use of email commands,
you can add a note (seen only by your internal users), change the status of an email, assign it to a member
of the mailbox, or add labels.
Note - Email commands will only execute on replies to existing emails which are sent from your email
client. Email commands are ignored for new emails and emails sent from within Helpmonks web
application.
Below is a list of available email commands.
Tip: You can send a reply to the sender while also sending multiple commands in a single message, e.g. a
reply with a note and set an assignee. Example:

Attach an Internal Note

To attach a note to an email simple use #note Everything following ‘#note’ will be added to the email as a
note. Beginning another command will end the note

Assign Email to a User

Use #me to assign an email to yourself. This will change the current status of the email.
In order to assign the email to another team member, simply use command pound followed by the email
address of your team member, e.g.

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Change Status
To set a status of an email use the command pound followed by the status, e.g.

Add Labels
#label (or labels)
To label a conversation you can simply send the command pound follow with a comma separated list of
labels, e.g.

Any unrecognized labels in the list will be ignored.

Set Reminders
#remindme (or remind, or reminder)
Set a reminder by using the commands above followed by a date/time or a number of hours, minutes, days,
or away.
To specify a reminder day the following words ‘tomorrow’, ‘next Tuesday, or a specific date such as 5/16,
(in DD/MM or DD/MM/YYY format) will work.
Setting a reminder time is done either by specifying ‘morning’ or ‘afternoon’ or using the @ symbol
followed by a time, i.e. ‘@8a’ or ‘@4:15pm’, '@10:15.
Lastly, reminders can also be set to execute in a given number of minutes, hours, days, etc. by following up
the reminder command with the word ‘in’ and the delay, i.e. #remindme in 5 hours.
Example reminder commands.

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If no time is specified for a reminder then it will default to ‘morning’. If no date is set it will default to the
next occurrence of the specified time within the next 24 hours. A reminder can be set with either (1) a day,
(2) a time, (1 & 2) both, or (3) with the ‘in’ keyword followed by the delay length. Multiple reminders can
be set for a single email, each reminder will need to have its own '#reminder command.
Forward Emails
You can forward emails to your mailbox and Helpmonks will read the forward headers and set the FROM
address automatically. However, some email clients do not include the forwarding headers. In this case you
can use the #setto email command.
#setto (email address)
With the #setto command you can manually set the FROM address. Once set any reply to this forwarded
email will be sent to the address which you set with #setto.
You can even change the TO address of any existing email thread with sending the #setto email command.
Creating a new email thread
So far, you’ve had to go into Helpmonks to create a new message from your mailbox address. With the
new #new email command, you will be able to do the same right from your email client.
#new (email address)

Say your mailbox has the address “sales@[Link]” and you need to send an email
from sales@[Link] to the customer. Within your email client, simply send an email to
sales@[Link] and on the first line you write the email command #new nitai@[Link]. Right
after this command, you write the email to the customer.
Here is an example of how this would look in Gmail:

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Note - When sending a reply and executing one or more commands within the same email you must
place the reply for your customer at the top of the email before any commands have been specified.
Anything following the first ‘#’ of a command will be considered part of the commands and will not
get sent as part of the reply.
You can use JobScore email inboxes to send messages to JobScore to add candidates, add notes and track
emails (learn more here). Email commands make inboxes even more powerful.
To use commands, just type specific text at the top of your emails to trigger special actions. Email
commands start with a forward slash ( / ) and you can “stack” more than one command into the same
message (one per line). JobScore email commands include:

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Stacking Commands In The Same Email

You can use multiple commands at the same time -- just make sure each command is on it’s own line.
Here are few examples of how you can stack email commands:
Add a private note to a candidate and tag them as an engineer with ruby and devops skills:
To: note@[Link]
Attachment: [none]
Email Body:
/candidate mark@[Link]
/tag engineer, python, devops
/private
This guy is awesome, he wants $125K for full time, $90 for contract
Important: The content you want added to your note must follow /private if you intend to keep the note
private. Otherwise any text not preceeded by a forward slash ( / ) command will be part of the note.

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Add a new candidate, including a private note, and tag them as a sales guy to be followed up with in
August:
To: resume@[Link]
Attachment: [Resume of Soupy [Link]]
Email Body:
/req Senior Account Executive
/tag Sales
/tag Followup - August
/private
Soupy looks like the perfect guy for us to hire as a sales rep in Q4 when we are looking for someone more
senior
Important: The content you want added to your note must follow /private if you intend to keep the note
private. Otherwise any text not preceded by a forward slash ( / ) command will be part of the note.

Email Tracking Cheat Sheet

We know this can be a lot to remember - and referring back to this support article every time you want to
use email-tracking would be a pain. The image above should be easy to print and read or just click the link
below to download a copy. When you are first getting used to email commands, we recommend saving it
to your desktop or even printing it out to have a quick "cheat sheet" at your fingertips for quick reference.
Inbound Email Configuration
To configure inbound email, navigate to Admin > System Config > Email Settings. The Inbound tab is
where all of the inbound configuration is performed:

You are required to define the reply-to email address that notification emails will be sent as. Nagios XI will
automatically add this as the reply-to address for notification emails it sends.

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Under the Inbox Connection Settings section you will need to populate the fields with the settings for your
mailbox server and user account. Once you have defined the settings you can validate them by clicking
the Test Connection button.

Email Commands
When inbound email is enabled, the reply-to field will be set for notifications. When you reply to the email
with one of the following commands, it will be equivalent to running the command in the interface. Nagios
XI knows who sent the command based on the email address used to send the response. Commands must
be in the order specified in the examples.

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Using Multiple Commands

The commands ack, check, nonotify, can be added onto commands that require options to be passed. You
can do this by comma separation. The example below acknowledges a problem and does an immediate
check: ack, check Using a combination may also be useful if you'd like to acknowledge and then schedule
downtime, you can do this by passing something like the following: ack, down now – 12:30 Taking this
down to resolve the issue
In Case of Error
If the system cannot read a response email you will receive an email back with an error message.
Otherwise, it will pass the command onto the subsystem.
Sending and Receiving Files by Email:
What is email?
Email is a method of communication that transmits information using the internet. It's a common part of
education, business and commerce interactions. Depending on your occupation, you may use email as a
frequent part of your work. If not, you can also use email for personal interactions. This can include
contacting companies or communicating with friends and family.
Benefits of sending emails
There are many forms of online communication to choose from, including email. These are some benefits
of using email:

 Cost-effective: Email is often a free method of communication you can use for personal or business
purposes. It may cost more to obtain higher function or security, but email is usually a very cost-
effective choice for communication.
 Simple: Once you have an email account and program for sending and receiving emails, it can be
very simple to communicate with others. Many email programs offer pre-made responses you can
use to save time when composing replies.
 Flexible: Because email is a tool you use with the internet, you can often access it from many
places. This includes computers, laptops, tablets and phones.
 Paperless: Unlike other forms of communication, email is a paperless way to send information to
others. This can help it be cost-effective and ecologically friendly.

How to send an email

Depending on the purpose of your email and the program you use to send and receive them, you may
follow different steps. These are some steps you can follow to send an email:
1. Choose a program for sending emails
The first step to sending an email is choosing a program to use. There are many email services and
applications you can use to send and organize emails. Many computers and devices come with pre-installed
email management systems. Consider reviewing your operating system or researching options online to
determine which email program is best for you.
2. Type out emails in the recipient box
The recipient box is the place in the composition box where you can detail who receives your message.
Email addresses follow the format "name@[Link]", so it's important to ensure your input the addresses
correctly so they can deliver properly. For example, your recipients may be "eddiegalindo@[Link]",
"margorieborges@[Link]" and "finnviviana@[Link]".

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3. Use "Cc" or "Bcc" to include others

"Cc" means carbon copy, and "Bcc" means blind carbon copy. These are parts of the composition window
where you can include other people without sending the email to them directly. This can communicate to
them that you want them to know about the interaction, but you may not expect a response. A blind carbon
copy doesn't inform the other people in the email that you shared it with others. "Bcc" can be helpful for
sharing emails discretely.
4. Write a subject for your email
After listing your recipients and using "Cc" and "Bcc", you can write the subject for the email. A subject
line is a brief explanation for what the email is. This helps the recipient quickly identify the purpose of the
communication and can help them prioritize it. Effective subjects prompt the recipient to open and read, so
it's important to write one that properly communicates the purpose of the email. For example, if you're
sending an email at work, you may use the subject line "Marketing ideas for quarter 3".
5. Compose the body of your message
The body of your email is the part in which you write out a letter or communicate information. Depending
on the purpose of the email, it can be as long or as short as you want. For example, if you email with a
colleague multiple times throughout the day to communicate about a project, the emails you send may only
be a few lines or [Link] you format and edit the body of your email can depend on the purpose. If
you're sending an email to apply for a job, you may include your cover letter in the body, which can be
several paragraphs long and formatted formally. If you're sending a personal email to catch up with an old
friend, you may type a long message to include lots of information.
6. Include any necessary attachments
You can include elements in your email other than text, including images and documents. Many email
management programs include an option for attaching these elements. It's usually a button with a paperclip
icon, and when you select it you can choose the image or document you want to include. Some email
programs also allow you to place images in the text. You may also embed links so the recipient can access
them easily.
7. Send the email and check for replies
To send the email, there's usually a button that reads "send" or has an arrow icon. Depending on the email
management system you use, the send button can look different. After sending the email, you can navigate
to your inbox to check for responses. Depending on the system you use, you may use your phone or other
devices to check you inbox as well. These mobile apps can usually provide push notifications that inform
you of the email.
Process of sending and receiving email is given below:-
Explanation:
Following are the steps which are the process of sending an email:-
Step 1: Firstly Sign in your account. Go to https:/[Link]/mail.
Step2: Then write a new email.
Step3: Write the email address of the recipient.
Step4: Enter the topic of the e-mail.
Step5: Please reach the body.
Step6: Submit it and finish it.
Step7: Proof of this.

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Following are the steps which are the process of receiving an email:-
Step1: Firstly Sign in your account. Go to https:/[Link]/mail.
Step2: After that we see that there are lots of options are [Link] as primary, social, inbox.
Step3: The user will choose the inbox option and see that there are lots of mail are there.
Step4: The user will click on that particular mail and see that mail.
How email is received
Let’s now take a look at how email is received. No surprises here — we’ll revert straight back to our mail
carrier analogy. How would an envelope be delivered to the recipient on the front of the envelope? The
postal service finds the most logical route to the recipient.
The electronic version of events is handled similarly:
 The mail server locates the recipient’s server, but since the recipient’s server won’t accept every mail that
comes its way, it asks who sent the email.
 The sending server gives the recipient server information on who the sender is by querying the envelope.
Acknowledging the email is from a legitimate source (not spam, etc.), the recipient server says, "sure, I
understand that Namecheap exists, and from that sending address.”
 Satisfied the sender address is correct, the recipient server asks for the receiver’. This is how envelope data
is treated. The sending server will now forward the contents of the email contained in the envelope. Once
the email has been received, the recipient server gives the mail server a receipt.
Controlling email Volume:
1. Allocate a specific time for your emails every day
An average worker checks email 74 times a day (the OCD we just spoke of).
Even though email seems less intrusive than a phone call, it can end up creating far more stress. You often
end up worrying about it all day without really acting on it. This is surely a source of anxiety.
The first start to solve this is by allocating a fixed time every day to deal with email. Leaving email open
all day long will mean notifications, alerts, and beeps interrupting the workflow and disrupting focus.
Schedule specific blocks of time just for email. And get rid of them as fast as you can. Also, while you do
this ensure you’re not multitasking. If need be, turn off your cell phone or shun yourself from the world to
do this in utmost silence.
The end result will make you feel like a warrior and also release your mind off all the worries.

“Due to high workload, I am currently checking and responding to e-mail twice daily at 12:00 pm ET [or
your time zone] and 4:00 pm ET.
If you require urgent assistance (please ensure it is urgent) that cannot wait until either 12:00 pm or 4:00
pm, please contact me via phone at XXX-XXX-XXXX.”
Even if you’re working in a senior position and receive time-sensitive emails, you can still use this
strategy. Remember if it’s something urgent, people can always reach out to you over a call. This is
essentially the first step and the most important step in email organization.

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2. Hit that “delete” button

As clichéd as it may sound, hitting the delete button is therapeutic. These are always those emails that have
been lying unattended in your inbox for ages.
The sender has probably forgotten about it by now or is tired of following up with you. It does not make
any sense to reply to any of these (not that you have the time to). So let go of your guilt and your ambition
of being able to reply to them one day.
Be brutally honest with yourself, think practical, and delete what you don’t need or won’t act on. Delete as
much as you can. Go wild! Say goodbye to all those things you are not going to miss.

While you are on your deleting spree, don’t forget to “report spam” on anything that seems unfamiliar or
forced.
For the emails, you aren’t ready to delete just yet, archive them. The probability of you never needing them
again is probably very high, but if you do, you will breathe a sigh of relief.
Just make a note, in case you’re using Gmail, then all the deleted messages stay in the Trash for 30 days.
After this time, the emails are permanently deleted and are unrecoverable.
3. Labels, Folders, Categories, and Tags to the rescue
There is no universal rule that applies to the creation of categories. Every person is different and responds
according to their personal preferences. It’s really about figuring out what works best for you.
For example, someone in operations who goes out for meetings once a month may need just one meeting
folder, whereas someone in sales who heads out every day for multiple meetings will benefit from having
several.
Prioritize, group, filter, and sort emails into categories or tags to create an organized inbox. The more
refined this process is, the easier it will be to locate important and specific emails at the time of need. You
can also create parent categories and subcategories for various projects or clients for a superior
experience. At work, you can create categories for things like company announcements, team collaboration
& more.
Here’s how you can do it in Gmail – head to your inbox and look at the left sidebar menu in full view. You
will see “manage labels” under the “categories” tab. Click on “Create a new label” under it.

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Every label is a folder, and you can name it accordingly. Make sure you use search-friendly words to
describe the content of the email so that it can be easily searched for and found.
You can also assign different colors to your labels and tags for a better sorting experience.
4. Convert your group email accounts into shared inboxes
We are all part of group emails which can get as annoying as Whatsapp groups. Messages keep popping up
one after the other, which may or may not be relevant to every single person marked in the group. It’s
possible only two employees are needed to act on that email, but somehow twelve others have to read
them.
There needs to be a way where such emails can be organized to monitor your team’s workflow in an
effective manner. Use an email collaboration tool that acts as an alternative to such problems.
For instance, Hiver lets you manage shared inboxes such as support, sales, or info right from your Gmail
inbox.
You can easily assign tasks to anyone on your team without having to forward the email. It also lets you
communicate internally without having to write emails. Both of these things mean you have less email
clutter to deal with.
Create and Manage Shared Inboxes
5. Flag or create SLAs for emails that need ‘more’ attention
There will obviously be emails that require a well-thought-out and framed response. Spontaneity will not
work in such cases. For emails you do not have time for right away, flag them and come back to them once
a week in your downtime.

Starring the emails will remind you that you need to get back to something which requires your attention.
You can sort these emails in a way that they appear at the top. You can also mark the emails as unread so
that you can respond to emails that are the most time-pressing.
An efficient way to do this would be by allocating a specific time at the start of the weekend, let’s say a
Friday, to do it all in one go. Creating such a scheduled window for responses will also help you come back
to a cleaner inbox on Monday and start fresh.
You can also create SLAs (Service Level Agreements) to prioritize incoming emails based on pre-defined
rules.

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Set up SLAs on Hiver

For example, you can set up triggers to automatically identify and flag urgent emails from important clients
or customers, ensuring they receive prompt attention and response.
6. Unsubscribe or “mass unsubscribe”
There have been so many times when I have winded up having promotional emails I have never needed.
We seldom realize when we accidentally let the “tick” for promotional email subscription go unchecked
while signing up to any website.
Be wary of what you are signing up for and subscribe to only those emails that you truly want to see in
your inbox. Look out for patterns like when you archive or delete the same subscriptions on a regular basis.
Perhaps it’s time to unsubscribe from them.
You can also aim a notch higher and mass unsubscribe if the number of subscriptions is too overwhelming
for you to do it manually. [Link] is a great way to achieve this. It helps you see an instant list of all your
subscription emails and easily unsubscribe from whatever you don’t want. I cannot even tell you how much
clarity this has brought into not just my inbox but also my life. It is owned by Rakuten Intelligence & it’s
free to use.

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Clean Email is another great tool that helps you unsubscribe from all unwanted newsletters.
Its Unsubscriber feature shows all your subscriptions in one place, making it easier to choose the
newsletters that you no longer want to receive. You can either opt-out from a newsletter or send it to
the Read Later folder, which means that you will not see these emails in your inbox but can easily access
them from a separate folder whenever needed.
The service comes with a subscription model and has a free trial for cleaning up to 1000 emails. And in
case you’re wondering, Clean Email is a privacy-oriented solution. It doesn’t collect or sell any user email
data to third parties. It analyzes only email headers and other metadata, keeping your personal information
private.

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7. Set up default replies

If you find yourself typing the same message over and over again, you can create your own email
templates for similar responses.
Create different categories based on the kinds of replies you send, and you can customize it accordingly for
various replies. Thus, email templates will help you save a lot of time which otherwise writing a mail from
scratch would require.

A lot of companies and individuals follow this when you contact them. They create a standard set of replies
to roll out, adding just a touch of personalization to it.

It can also include powerful newsletters that you subscribe to that help you grow personally as well as
professionally. The remaining 80% is not important and is mostly junk.

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The 20% of emails are the ones that require immediate attention and reply. They need to be given the most
priority. Follow the two-minute rule for these emails: If it takes less than two minutes, do it now.
8. Set up filters to send emails where they belong
I swear by this simple hack. These filters take care of what you would like to do with any incoming email
manually, whether it is to send it to the appropriate folder or dump it into Trash (feels so good).

 Open your inbox and click the down arrow on the right side of the “search” box.
 Enter your search criteria in the available boxes such as email senders, receivers, subject, keywords,
attachment and chat details etc.
 Click on the option “create filter with this search” on the bottom right and choose what you would
like to do with those emails.
9. Multiple inboxes to the rescue
Along with your primary inbox, you can create mini inboxes within it according to sections, email types,
clients or topics. This is a great way to organize those hundreds of emails that accumulate in your main
inbox over weeks, months, and years in a haphazard manner.
Here’s how you can do this on Gmail:
 Click on the top right corner of your primary Gmail inbox.
 Select “Settings” under the dropdown.
 Click on “Inbox” in the navigation and search for “multiple inboxes” in the dropdown.
 Set the filters. So if you wish to organize your emails by today, yesterday, and older than 7 days,
here’s how you make the changes in the multiple inboxes settings:

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On clicking “Save Changes”, here’s what your inbox should look like:

This feature also helps to select the maximum number of emails that can appear in your inbox at one time.
It is a great way to organize your inbox and maintain inbox zero.
10. Apply the 80/20 Rule
The 80/20 principle can be applied to almost all aspects of our lives, including email management. Also
known as “The Pareto Principle” or “The Law of the Vital Few,” it states that 80% of the effects in a
situation come from 20% of the causes.

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In order to effectively manage email too, we’ve got to focus on only 20% of the inputs that lead to 80% of
results.
In other words, the focus needs to shift to 20% of the emails we derive the highest value from. These can
be emails from top clients, emails related to recent projects that will help you achieve breakthrough work,
speaking opportunities, invitations to workshops, etc.
As for the remaining 80%, take some time to reply or follow any of the tips here to manage them better (or
trash them out).
11. Pause your inbox
If you are overwhelmed with the number of emails at the moment and do not want to deal with it at the
moment, you can take control of when you send or receive them.
Boomerang is an easy tool that acts as a personal secretary and reminds you if you don’t hear back from
someone. It also helps you take messages out of your inbox till you actually need them. You can also write
an email while you are on the go and have it arrive exactly when you want it to be in the inbox.
You can keep your inbox from receiving emails for as long as you want and from whatever source you
want. Boomerang also gives a host of other features, such as scheduling emails, setting up auto-responses,
or hiding emails till you want to see them. In the free plan, you get 10 free message credits.
12. Touch it once
As the name suggests, touch-it-once is a principle that relies on making a decision right away. It is also
referred to as the Only Handle It Once (OHIO) method.
Coming back to the same email over and over again is bound to waste a lot of time. So you touch it once,
take whatever action needs to be taken, close it, and move on to the next priority.
The touch-it-once principle may seem like it’s easy, but it can get a little hard to follow when it comes to
email. Because we have a tendency to defer replying to emails, with the thought lurking in our minds for a
long time.
But keeping this mindset is important, especially since we all deal with a humongous volume of emails
every day. This will keep you from constantly getting distracted by the thought of unreplied emails, which
can dramatically lower your productivity. Choose your words well so that there is no room for ambiguity or
misinterpretation.

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13. Disable social media email notifications

News flash: Social media is distracting! I know you know that already, but it can make its way inside your
head even against the strongest of restraints.
You really do not really need to know who commented on what photo on Facebook or who recently
retweeted your meme, at least not right away.
Every little thing that goes on in your social media feed invades your inbox and ends up creating thousands
of unread emails.
If you currently receive emails from social media platforms, you must be aware of the catastrophe it can
create in your inbox. Log in to your accounts and deactivate all email notifications.
This will rid your inbox of thousands of emails every month. You need to do the same for any other kind of
email app notifications.
14. Deal with group emails right away
If you’re tagged in group emails (for example, all those birthday emails you get in your company inbox),at
your work or school, make sure to create a filter to assign it to a specific folder.
These emails are usually not very important or time-critical & hence it’s better it doesn’t show up in the
main inbox. Trust me that’s checking these emails are last of your priorities.
15. Schedule a time to clean your inbox
Over the week, your email inbox might be cluttered with a lot of emails. Hence make sure to keep aside a
few minutes every day to clean up your inbox.

If you don’t schedule a particular time, the clean-up task often gets delayed. You can set a calendar
reminder to notify yourself of the task.
16. Invest in tools
I can’t emphasize enough on how beneficial & necessary it is to invest in good email tools. It has
personally helped me a lot in keeping things organized and manage my emails better. Here are a few tools
that I would recommend :
Sortd is another great tool for Gmail users. It serves multiple purposes, right from sales to teamwork. The
best part is that it works right from your Gmail inbox. It essentially enables you to create buckets where
you can drag and drop emails, something similar to Trello.

Sortd also helps you in tracking your emails & with team collaboration. To get started, you can use Sortd’s
free plan.
EmailAnalytics

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EmailAnalytics is another essential tool for managing your email. It visualizes your email activity (or that
of your team),showing you things like how many emails you send and receive every day, who your top
senders and recipients are, and how quickly you respond to emails on average.
It has a free trial and paid plans starting at just $5 per month.
Streak

Streak is another powerful tool if you’re looking to manage your Gmail. Some features include thread
splitter, send later, mail merge, view tracking & more. You can start using the professional plan at
$49/month.
You can also create amazing workflows using Zapier, and its API support.
17. Use keyboard shortcuts

Gmail Keyboard shortcuts have personally helped me to stay productive. I know it can be hard to
remember these shortcuts in the beginning but trust me, once get the hang of it, it takes your email
productivity to another level.

To enable shortcuts, you just need to go to the settings in the top right-hand corner of Gmail. Under the
General tab, you’ll find Keyboard shortcuts, just turn it “on” & click on the save button.

Here’s a small list of my favorite shortcuts –

C – The C key opens up a new compose window.

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D – The D key opens up a compose window in a new tab.

S – In the Inbox view, the S key lets you star an email, hitting the S key again unstars the email.
N & P – The N & P key lets you scroll through a conversation in a thread. When you need to expand a
conversation, just hit the enter key.

Pro Tip – Create a sticky note for the email shortcuts and stick at your workspace. It will help you learn
faster.
18. Read Top Down, Write Bottom Up

Here’s a small hack that I stole from Atish Davda, CEO of EquityZen. He advises consuming emails by
threads in reverse chronological order & to respond to them in chronological order. This has been quite
useful for me.

Atish Davda further says:

This nuanced hack takes advantage of the fact that some folks respond to emails immediately, sometimes
triggering an email “tennis match,” eating up that hour you set aside to tackle your whole inbox, and
leaving you feeling behind.

19. Use more than one email account

I personally cannot stand order confirmation emails or credit card reminders on my work email. These
emails only clutter my inbox & make it difficult to spot the important emails.

Hence, I use a different email address for all these emails of low importance. You can use this in two ways
– either by creating a different email or by creating an alias address using your current account.

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20. Turn off notifications

I’d recommend you to turn off email notifications if you’ve turned it on, either on your browser, mobile,
or email client. According to a study from the University of California – “After a notification has forced us
to switch between tasks, it can take us about 23 minutes to get back to the task at hand”.

Hence it’s better to turn off your email notifications.

21. Take action immediately

Taking quick action on emails can actually help keep your inbox under control. The whole idea is to not
delay the task but to complete the task then & there. Whether it’s an email reply, email forward or deletion,
make sure to act on that moment itself. The faster the action better it is.
I know it’s quite hard to make it a habit, but once you do, your life becomes so much easier.

22. Follow the 1-minute rule

If it takes one minute to reply to an email, reply to the email immediately. It takes more effort if you leave
the email sit & being constantly reminded that you need to reply. This hack will help you in clear large
chunks of email quickly.
23. Avoid over-subscribing to newsletters or updates

I know how tempting it is to subscribe to newsletters that you feel can be useful. But from my personal
experience, the majority of these newsletters go unread. Hence, before subscribing to newsletters, think
twice.
While signing up for any tool, there are times when they ask if you want to be notified about updates, make
sure to uncheck this box. Unfortunately, not all tools ask for your permission, so you’ll have to unsubscribe
manually.
How to Send a Secure Email in Gmail
By default, all email messages sent using Gmail are protected by something called TLS, or Transport Layer
Security. TLS is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide communications security over a computer
network, and it’s widely used on the internet to secure everything from email to web browsing to voice and
video calls.
TLS protects messages from being captured en route from point A to point B, but it doesn’t protect them
against Google or anyone else with access to Google’s servers. You can, however, take Gmail’s encryption
to the next level with FlowCrypt. This elegant web browser extension integrates seamlessly with Gmail,
adding end-to-end encryption that prevents anyone in the middle from reading private communications.

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While you’re at it, you should also consider pairing your Gmail account with Clean Email, a powerful bulk
email organizer with useful automation features that can keep your inbox organized and spam-free, which
is essential if you want to be truly secured.

While Clean Email can't help you with sending or encrypting emails, it can help you to get rid of tonnes of
unwanted messages, including newsletters, mailing lists, and other unsolicited messages. Using privacy-
conscientious algorithms that analyze only email headers containing subject line, sender and recipient
information, dates, and similar metadata, the app organizes all of your messages into easy-to-review
bundles, allowing you to apply various actions to entire groups of emails instead of selecting them one by
one.

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Email is continuously playing catch-up to keep users safe from cybersecurity threats. Privacy Guard from
Clean Email provides a safety-net for your email address by cross-checking it against known security
threats.

Upon identifying your email address in a security breach, Privacy Guard immediately suggests you change
your password so you can minimize any potential damage. You can get started with Clean Email for free
on your iOS, macOS, Android device, or in web.

Receiving a [secure] Email – External Recipient

These steps are using Gmail but will be similar to other providers. • Once the message is received, click
Read the message.

Using Gmail as the example, at this point, there are 2 options – “Sign in with Google” or “Sign in with a
One-time passcode”.

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Providers such as Google, Yahoo, and [Link] are trusted by Microsoft and the recipient can select
Sign in with Google and will be able to view the message.
All providers will offer “Sign in with a One-time passcode” and some will offer only this option. To use
this option:

Click Sign in with a One-time passcode.

A one-time passcode will be sent to the recipient’s email address, as noted below:

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Unit – III Internet Services

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Online Chatting Concepts
3.3 Online Conferencing Concepts
3.4 E-mail Mailing List
3.5 Usenet News groups concepts
3.6 Reading Usenet news groups
3.7 Video Conferencing concepts
3.1 Introduction:
Internet services
To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips, text files, other
documents, etc., we need internet services. You must use an Internet service to connect to the
Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to your machine via Internet service. Some of the
commonly used internet services are :
 Communication Services
 Information Retrieval Services
 File Transfer
 World Wide Web Services
 Web Services
 Directory Services
 Automatic Network Address Configuration
 Network Management Services
 Time Services
 Usenet
 NewsGroup
 Ecommerce
Now let us discuss them one by one
1. Communication Services: To exchange data/information among individuals or organizations, we
need communication services. Following are some of the common communication services:
 IRC(Internet Relay Chat): Subscribers can communicate in real-time by connecting numerous
computers in public spaces called channels.
 VoIP: It stands for Voice over Internet Protocol, which describes how to make and receive phone
calls over the internet. A larger number of people believe VoIP is a viable alternative to traditional
landlines. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technique that helps us make voice calls via the
Internet rather than over a traditional (or analog) phone line. Some VoIP services may let you call
only other VoIP users, while others may let you call anyone with a phone number, including long-
distance, mobile, and local/international lines. If you have an internet connection you can easily call
anyone without using a local phone service because VoIP solutions are based on open standards, they
can be used on any computer. More than just setting up calls is what VoIP service providers do.
Outgoing and incoming calls are routed through existing telephone networks by them.
 List Server (LISTSERV): Delivers a group of email recipients’ content-specific emails.
 E-Mail: Used to send electronic mail via the internet. It is a paperless method for sending text,
images, documents, videos, etc from one person to another via the internet.
 User Network (USENET): It hosts newsgroups and message boards on certain topics, and it is
mostly run by volunteers.

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 Telnet: It’s used to connect to a remote computer that’s connected to the internet.
 Video Conferencing: Video conferencing systems allow two or more people who are generally in
different locations to connect live and visually. Live video conferencing services are necessary for
simulating face-to-face talks over the internet. The system can vary from very simple to complex,
depending on the live video conferencing vendors. A live video-based conference involves two or
more individuals in separate locations utilizing video-enabled devices and streaming voice, video,
text, and presentations in real-time via the internet. It allows numerous people to connect and
collaborate face to face over large distances. Tools available for this purpose are Zoom,
FreeConference, Google Hangouts, Skype, etc.
2. Information Retrieval Services: It is the procedure for gaining access to information/data stored on
the Internet. Net surfing or browsing is the process of discovering and obtaining information from the
Internet. When your computer is linked to the Internet, you may begin retrieving data. To get data, we
need a piece of software called a Web browser. A print or computer-based information retrieval system
searches for and locates data in a file, database, or other collection of data. Some sites are:
 [Link]: Free tutorials, millions of articles, live, online, and classroom courses,
frequent coding competitions, industry expert webinars, internships, and job possibilities are all
available. A computer-based system for searching and locating data in a file, database, or another
source.
 [Link]: It includes advice for students, parents, and educators on how to be more
creative.
3. File Transfer: The exchange of data files across computer systems is referred to as file transfer. Using
the network or internet connection to transfer or shift a file from one computer to another is known as
file transfer. To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data item across several users and/or machines,
both locally and remotely, we use file transfer. Data files include – documents, multimedia, pictures,
text, and PDFs and they can be shared by uploading or downloading them. To retrieve information from
the internet, there are various services available such as:
 Gopher: A file retrieval application based on hierarchical, distributed menus that is simple to use.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data item across several
users and/or machines, both locally and remotely.
 Archie: A file and directory information retrieval system that may be linked to FTP
4. Web services: Web services are software that uses defined messaging protocols and are made
accessible for usage by a client or other web-based programs through an application service provider’s
web server. Web services allow information to be exchanged across web-based applications. Using
Utility Computing, web services can be provided.
5. World Wide Web: The internet is a vast network of interconnected computers. Using this network,
you can connect to the world wide web (abbreviated as ‘www’ or ‘web’) is a collection of web pages.
The web browser lets you access the web via the internet.
6. Directory Services: A directory service is a set of software that keeps track of information about your
company, customers, or both. Network resource names are mapped to network addresses by directory
services. A directory service provides users and administrators with full transparent access to printers,
servers, and other network devices. The directory services are :
 DNS (Domain Number System): This server provides DNS. The mappings of computer hostnames
and other types of domain names to IP addresses are stored on a DNS server.
 LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): It is a set of open protocols that are used for
obtaining network access to stored data centrally. It is a cross-platform authentication protocol for
directory services and also allows users to interact with other directory services servers.

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7. Automatic Network Address Configuration: Automatic Network Addressing assigns a unique IP

address to every system in a network. A DHCP Server is a network server that is used to assign IP
addresses, gateways, and other network information to client devices. It uses Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol as a common protocol to reply to broadcast inquiries from clients.
8. Network Management Services: Network management services are another essential internet service
that is beneficial to network administrators. Network management services aid in the prevention,
analysis, diagnosis, and resolution of connection problems. The two commands related to this are:
 ping: The ping command is a Command Prompt command that is used to see if a source can
communicate with a specific destination & get all the possible paths between them.
 traceroute: To find the path between two connections, use the traceroute command.
9. Time Services: Using facilities included in the operating system, you may set your computer clock via
the Internet. Some services are :
 Network Time Protocol (NTP): It is a widely used internet time service that allows you to
accurately synchronize and adjust your computer clock.
 The Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP): It is a time-keeping protocol that is used to
synchronize network hardware. When a full implementation of NTP is not required, then this
simplified form of NTP is typically utilized.
10. Usenet: The ‘User’s Network’ is also known as Usenet. It is a network of online discussion groups.
It’s one of the first networks where users may upload files to news servers and others can view them.
11. News Group: It is a lively Online Discussion Forum that is easily accessible via Usenet. Each
newsgroup contains conversations on a certain topic, as indicated by the newsgroup name. Users can use
newsreader software to browse and follow the newsgroup as well as comment on the posts. A newsgroup
is a debate about a certain topic made up of notes posted to a central Internet site and distributed over
Usenet, a global network of news discussion groups. It uses Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP).
12. E-commerce: Electronic commerce, also known as e-commerce or e-Commerce, is a business
concept that allows businesses and individuals to buy and sell goods through the internet. Example:
Amazon, Flipkart, etc. websites/apps.
Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics, sound and
software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories of Internet Services.

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Communication Services

There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of information with individuals or
groups. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:

S.N. Service Description

Electronic Mail
1
Used to send electronic message over the internet.

Telnet
2
Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet.

Newsgroup
3
Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

4
Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time.

Mailing Lists
5 Used to organize group of internet users to share common information through e-
mail.

Internet Telephony (VoIP)

6 Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any PC equipped to receive the
call.

Instant Messaging
7 Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo
messenger, MSN messenger.

Information Retrieval Services

There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information present on the
internet. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:

S.N. Service Description

1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

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Enable the users to transfer files.

Archie
2 It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps to search a
file by its name.

Gopher
3
Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites.

Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to Computer Achieved

(VERONICA)
4
VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access to the information
resource stored on gopher’s servers.

Web Services

Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using web services,
applications can easily interact with each other.

The web services are offered using concept of Utility Computing.

World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the several servers over the
internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics, audio, video, hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the
users to navigate between the documents.

Video Conferencing

Video conferencing or Video teleconferencing is a method of communicating by two-way video and audio
transmission with help of telecommunication technologies.

Modes of Video Conferencing

Point-to-Point

This mode of conferencing connects two locations only.

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Multi-point

This mode of conferencing connects more than two locations through Multi-point Control Unit (MCU).

3.2 Online Chatting Concepts:

Internet nowadays is very common and available to all at cheap rates and can be used as a good means of
communication. Using the internet we can make text conversations with anyone. Send your message to
anyone and will get a reply, it’s known as instant messaging. You can talk over the internet with anyone,
which is known as voice chatting, and even with the help of a webcam, we can also have video calls or
video chatting.
Chatting refers to the kind of communication done with the help of the internet which present live
transmission of text messages from sender to receiver. Online chatting can be termed as the point-to-
point, one sender-to-one receiver, or one sender-to-many receiver. It also features voice, video, and also
web conferencing services. Chatting can be done as a chat-based as well as video-based (using
webcams). Chatting nowadays has evolved uniquely. In today’s world, we have a lot of applications and

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websites which are widely used across the world. Chatting over the internet has made it a lot easier to
have a conversation with anyone. People from any corner of the world are now able to contact the person
on the other edge.
Following are the most common type of chatting:
 Instant Messaging: It is the most common way of chatting. It is text-based communication. It
happens between two people or groups of people.
 Internet Relay Chat: It is known as IRC. It is also a text-based chat. It is not owned by any
company and to use IRC we need a client program. Using IRC we can participate in discussion
channels or can communicate with only two partners or users.
 ICQ: It is known as I seek you. It is the most useful communication program. Using ICQ we can
send files, URLs, and more. It is just like instant messaging but allows you to enter into the chat
room and can chat with multiple people at a time.
 Voice Chatting: We can chat not only with text but also with sounds as well. It is known as voice
chatting. Voice chatting can be used with the internet just as a phone call. Internet voice call is free
and unlimited, it only needs a good internet connection.
 Video chatting: Video chatting is also a kind of chatting which is also done with the help of the
internet and it also requires a webcam as it is a face to face chatting. Internet speed required by video
chatting is higher as compared to text and video chatting. And a good quality camera too.

Chat Room
A chat room is a part of an online service where users can have conversations with each other through
the internet. It can also be termed a virtual room. First users need to register to the server after
registration users can log in with the help of a username and password. In the chat room, users are
allowed to have conversations in multiple mediums such as text voice, or even video calls. Transmission
of multimedia ( images, videos, etc.) can also be done in the chat room.
Chat Etiquette
Following are some chat etiquette that we should follow while chatting:
 Never use abusive words during a chat session.
 Don’t create too many groups unless necessary.
 Never share sensitive information on chat especially in groups.
 Don’t share viral posts unless it’s verified.
 During chats, banking details must not be shared.
 Never share private messages of user/friend/ person without asking their permission.
 Always remember no one is perfect so always respect people.
Chatting Platforms
Nowadays there are many chatting platforms available for users. Some of them are mentioned below:
 Facebook: Facebook is one of the oldest and most used platforms for chatting. It was founded in
February 2004. Facebook offers text, voice, and video chat to its users. Users can also post some
materials on Facebook. Facebook is available for users in many different languages. Facebook is
currently owning different chatting applications. (WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook Messenger).
 WhatsApp: WhatsApp is also one of the most used platforms. It is owned by the Facebook group.
WhatsApp too offers all types of chatting (Text, voice, and video). It is available in many different
languages.
 Skype: Skype was initially released in August 2003. It is mostly used for live meetings. It is
available in 101 different languages.

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 Telegram: Telegram is a popular chatting application widely used across the world. It also allows
group as well as individual conversations. It is a multiplatform application, it can be used on different
operating systems for example mac, windows, Linux, ios, android.
 Snapchat: Snapchat is a mobile application for both Android as well as ios. One of the core concepts
of Snapchat is that the message sends to anyone whether it’s a videos message, text, or audio it will
only last for a short period.
 Hike: Hike messenger also known as hike sticker chat is a mobile application. Its main feature is that
it comes with sticker chatting which is unique as compared to other apps whatever text you want to
send it can be converted into a sticker.
Risk from Chatting
Chatting also has some risks which one should be aware of:
 During Chatting always be aware of fake profiles, fake profiles are very dangerous as they will allure
you to share some confidential information, which can be used in blackmail.
 Never use that application or platforms which don’t offer proper end-to-end encryption. Using such
platforms can lead to chat leaks.
 Cyberbullying is a major of risk chatting over the internet, it includes sending threatening messages,
spreading lies about anyone, commenting bad or abusive language on someone’s online profile, or
blackmailing someone to bash their looks or reputation.
 Never share your profile passwords with anyone, it can be missed in multiple ways ad can get down
your reputation.
How Chat Safely?
While chatting keep the following points in mind for safely chat:
 Never share personal information with any unknown user.
 Before chatting always check the profile of the user, and try to determine if it’s fake or real.
 Only chat with those users who have a genuine profile picture.
 Don’t trust anyone. Never trust any unknown user to share banking details or any personal
information.
 Always keep your guard. During online chat never keep your guard off, always be aware if someone
is trying to peek into the device.
 Do complain (tell your parents) instantly if noticed some unsuspicious activity.
3.3 Online Conferencing Concepts:
Web conferencing is a type of online meeting in which two or more two participants get involved via audio
and video in real-time from anywhere in the world.
In general, it is an online form of service (over the web) that works on communication protocols that are
TCP/IP (which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

That’s how we can define it in definition, but you don’t have to understand it by definition. As we are
going to define it descriptively. Web conferencing is one of the parts of advanced technology which
emphasizes improving the overall communication channels of businesses and institutions.

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Must To Know Things About Web Conferencing

We all recognise how crucial it is for businesses and organizations to interact with one another in a way
that prevents miscommunication. It provides a customized end-to-end way of communication, much as
face-to-face meetings do. However, the fundamental question that motivates the development of such
technology is this: how trustworthy is it for everyday face-to-face meetings with clients or people all over
the world? That’s not how things can be, can it? Traveling to different cities, and countries for meet-ups is
quite an expensive thing.
However after the revolutionary development of technology we all have seen how the working models
have evolved from hybrid to know remote working modes. So, using such web conferencing tools is quite
preferable. Web conferencing is a border term simply to conduct meetings online or sessions in an
interactive way. Not just that but you can be able to host a webinar or online events and that too on a large
scale.
Furthermore, web conferencing can be defined as the simple act of exchanging thoughts, information, or
ideas through your computer (using the internet) via an application directly over the web in real time. Web
conferencing is a more general term that covers a wide range of interactive session options. You may, for
instance, host or conduct a variety of sessions, such as large webinars, live seminars, or presentations either
live or recorded. Web conferencing becomes a one-stop platform for collaborative meetings, sessions, and
all other activities involving the sharing of ideas, thoughts, and information. Additionally, it includes
integrated text, audio, and video communication too. Next, let’s unleash the use of such advanced
communication models as web conferencing.
The Best Use of Web Conferencing platforms
The uses of web conferencing platforms are widely known and to make sure you don’t miss any here is an
elaborative attempt at it. Have a look at which of the benefits is needed to require for your institution;

Team Meetings
To discuss the projects and new strategies team meetings are important for any institution around the
world. But we are not talking about just holding meetings over your phone call, just opening up the camera
and connecting with each other. As this is not a matter of connecting only. However, how efficiently you
connect with each other in the team makes sense. As there are many cases where you need to repeat on
point lots of time which I really believe is an unproductive way of meetings.
Web conferencing offers a 360-degree camera setup in the conference room and with advanced
microphones to capture all the audio and video.
Webinar
Webinars are the top trending yet effective way to make your sales deal while giving training sessions or
having a group discussion over a topic. But how good is it to leverage different services when you can host
seamless webinars over the web and anyone can connect via just a link? With high-quality audio-video

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output, you will be able to express your thoughts and participants can even contribute their thoughts via
chats and screen sharing.
Online Collaboration
Here you can not just exchange your thoughts in real-time but with collaboration, you can do modifications
to any files and other things. As this offers remote access to teams for efficient working on the projects.
Product Demos
Businesses are meant to help people with their products and services and what if you can make product
demos? It is always an urgent need for the business to rely on a platform where the executives can teach
about their products within the teams to clients remotely. This can be the best approach as now you don’t
need to spend lots of money traveling to another city for product demos as it can be done right through
anywhere and to anyone irrespective of their geographical location.
Job Interviews
Every company or organization conducts interviews to recruit new employees and fill open positions. How
feasible is it to call a large number of applicants from several cities for a single interview? Let’s improve
your strategy by incorporating web conferencing into it. You can now interview candidates via web
conference and narrow down your options. There is absolutely no need to participate in any in-person
interviews. It also provides you with the same level of insight as in-person interviews.
Undoubtedly, there is no such online type of meeting you can’t do virtually and using online web
conferencing services. But this is not the end of the discussion as next we are going to talk about its
interactive features and how effectively they can emerge your boring meetings into an immersive
experience.
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Features Of Web Conferencing Platform

There are many features you can get benefited from with an online web conferencing platform. Some of the
top features are as follows;

 Voice and Video chat

 Screen sharing
 Instant messaging
 Desktop Sharing
 Remote Control

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 White Board
 File Sharing
 Meeting Recording
 Chat Features (private and group both)
 Polls and surveys
 Interactive Whiteboard
 And Many Other Additional Features
Advantages of Web Conferencing
There are many advantages that can’t be neglected or ignored. But before mentioning them, just have one
question. How powerful technology is where you can connect with your clients or team members or do
other collaborations with industry people easily and in a way that may be similar to in-person meetings.
Additionally, you will be able to host meetings as well as do webinars to virtual product demos and even
seal the sales. Let’s look at some more advantages;

A web conferencing solution provides many advantages over in-person virtual meetings or voice-only
conferencing:
Web conferencing is quite beneficial compared to any other meaning of in-person or virtual meetings or
even audio communication, how? Here are the top uses you should look for before you integrate this into
your business.
Remote meetings
Of course, the very nature of web conferencing is for remote meetings, but if you are having multiple
offices and teams to coordinate this is the best way. As this allows face-to-face meetings from anywhere
(meaning your remote employees can join too) with just an internet connection.
Offsetting Busy Schedules
No matter if the participant or meeting audience is in the same town it is still useful to connect with just a
click and get insights or updates about the projects with the bare minimum effort.
Virtual conference room
There are many features it offers including whiteboards where all the participants can suggest, write or edit
the shared files in real-time while screen sharing is helpful to understand easily.
Easy mobile access
Smartphones are part of life and everyone has the ability to work over the internet. The ability to connect
via just your phone is effective to make yourself always connected with your team.
Save on travel costs
When you can conduct remote meetings there is no need to travel anywhere and for accommodation. You
can even join or host a meeting from the comfort of your bedroom (well, that’s just an example, we are not
recommending it).

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Disadvantages of Web Conferencing

There is nothing that we can point out in the disadvantages besides the fact that technology has made our
work easier and to meet people in just a click. The very fact that the web conferencing is taking place of in-
person conferences or on-ground meetings can be one disadvantage of it. As it is reducing the physical
meetings. Furthermore, there are some technical points that includes;
Initial Setup of Web Conferencing Can Be Costly
If you have the vision to set long-term goals and in offering a reliable communication model to your team
then it is worth it. The initial setup for everything cost you a lot, the same as when you started your
business initially. For a web conferencing set-up in the initial stage, businesses need to ensure the
infrastructure required while giving all the necessary equipment to the teams also.
Equipment like webcams, monitors, headsets and others are the primary things you should need to invest
in. Additionally, you might need to buy software to rely on web conferencing service providers.
Risk of Social Isolation
As we are discussing above it reduces the physical meetings needed and leads to social isolation. As the
business has adopted the hybrid and remote working models, making it is tough for remote employees with
a lack of real-world contact. So, for this, you need to take all the precautionary measures.
However, web conferencing technology does not make someone isolated from the social world. Moreover
to bring everyone close, requires regular monitoring by human resources. So, the solution can be to host
some non-working activities and events.
Technical Issues Can Drive Disturbances
Technical issues, poor internet connectivity or something that might be unpredictable can be caused.
Technical issues, errors, and glitches can appear in the technology and for that investing in top-notch
equipment are necessary. As poor hardware and software can bring lots of disruptions that lead to
unproductiveness. Additionally, you also need to give some training to the employees who are using such
solutions to those working remotely to maintain the regular connection. Most technical issues come due to
poor internet connectivity, audio equipment and sometimes software glitch due to the compatibility of
hardware. But all this can be reduced to negligible just need to leverage services from a good web
conferencing solution provider.
Lastly, there is always a confusion between web conferencing and video conferencing. As both the things
are similar in nature but have some minute differences.
Online Web Conferencing Best Practices
To host the best web conferencing that offers your users an enhanced experience you should consider
following these best practices:
1. Plan & Practice
One of the best practices of online web conferencing is planning for every aspect of the conference. For
that, you can use web conferencing platforms. Planning everything will ensure that everything is in place.
You should plan your event agenda, content, engagement activities, etc.
But planning is not just enough; you will also have to practice for your conference in advance. So that you
get familiar with the platform that you are using for conferencing.
2. Use High-Quality Audio & Video
For any online web conferencing, the quality of audio and video plays a crucial role. The quality of the
audio can make or break it. So make sure you are using online conferencing tools or devices that can help
your audience see and experience high-quality video. Invest in the best quality audio and video devices. If
it is possible for you to invest in top-notch web conferencing services for the best possible audio and video.

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3. Record The Conference

Recording is another best practice for online web conferencing. With the recording, you will be able to
provide your audience with on-demand web conferencing. Invest in the best web conferencing platforms
that allow you to record your conference.
With on-demand web conferencing, you will be able to reach more audiences, and not just that it will be
evergreen content that you can always use for future reference.
4. Stay on Point
Staying relevant and on point during your online web conferencing is necessary. If you go off track with
your web conference your audience might feel disconnected. You won’t be able to keep your audience
hooked if you don’t provide them with relevant information. So make sure the information that you are
sharing is valuable and on-point.
5. Encourage Communication
When we are talking about best practices for web conferencing we can’t miss communication.
Communication is a vital element for the success of any web conference. You need to adapt two-way
communication for your web conference. Try to engage your audience, and communicate with them as
much as you can. Use different tools and activities. For instance, you can take audience questions, host a
live polling session, etc.
6. Use Online Conferencing Platforms & Services
If you search online you find a lot of web conferencing services and platforms. From free web
conferencing tools, platforms to paid there are many options to choose from. If you are on a tight budget
you can opt for free web conferencing platforms and services but if you want to host the best web
conferencing you should look for the top quality web conference service providers.
If you are not sure which platform you should opt for web conferencing. You can give Dreamcast a try. We
are a leading platform that offers web conferencing services to all industries, you can host interactive and
engaging conferences with features like live chat, 24*7 customer support, customization, polls & surveys,
etc.
7. Don’t Skip Follow Up
Following up after the conference is also considered the best practice for web conferencing. If you don’t
follow up with your participants how will you know about their experience? If you don’t follow up with
your participants you will miss the chance of improving your participant’s experience for an upcoming
conference. So make sure you ask for feedback.
Web Conferencing vs Video Conferencing
Web conferencing is widely used for webinar, presentations and for large-scale use (where there are more
people who can be involved). Whereas video conferencing is best for two-way meetings (not for large-
scale) and those two in real-time.
However online web conferencing can pre-record for later access too. But video conferencing is live and in
real-time, no pre-recorded session can be played.
Summing Up
Web conferencing is definitely the best and effective thing to incorporate with and integrate in the working
models. It is quite the best for all the remote and hybrid employees to stay connected with their teams while
for the sales team it is good to interact with clients and to use it for product demos and sales.
3.4 Email Mailing Lists:
A mailing list is a great way to reach customers or members to create a (long-term) relationship. But how
do you make a mailing list? And what kind of mailing lists can you make? Read on, because you will find
out in this article.

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What is a mailing list?

A mailing list is a collection of email addresses to which you send information and updates. Such a list
consists of a specific group, for example, customers who purchase a particular subscription from you—or
club members from a specific year. You can communicate effectively and purposefully by creating one or
more mailing lists.
How does a mailing list work?
A mailing list works as follows. Your website has a registration form where interested visitors can sign up.
Once signed up, one or more lists of email addresses are created. It could, for example, be a list of people
interested in updates on women’s clothing and a list of children’s clothing. You can email one group and
not send it to the other and vice versa, making it possible to send targeted emails.
6 types of mailing lists
You can create different mailing lists depending on your goal and who you want to reach. Below are 6
examples:
1. Newsletter
A newsletter lets you inform people or give updates about a product, service or company.
2. Marketing mail
In a marketing email, you can include offers, coupon codes, and discounts.
3. Service message
In a service message, you inform people about a product or service, for example, when maintenance
is needed.
4. Member letter
In a membership letter, you can inform about activities, events and the association itself.
5. Geographical email
A geographical mail is intended for people from a specific location, for example, if you are an
international company and want to mail Dutch customers.
6. Demographic email
A demographic email targets people with specific characteristics, such as age and occupation.
What do you use to create a mailing list?
You create a mailing list with software, making it easy to track who subscribes and unsubscribes and create
groups.
Mailing list software
There are several tools available that allow you to create mailing lists easily. For example,
with Mailchimp, HubSpot or ConvertKit. Do you use WordPress? Link a plugin to your website to quickly
set up a sign-up form—for example, Popup Maker, OptinMonster or Ninja Kick.
A mailing list and the GDPR
When you create a mailing list, you process personal data. However, you are not allowed to use that
personal data just like that. You need permission to do so since the introduction of the GDPR (General
Data Protection Regulation). Among other things, you must:
 Clearly state what you will use the data for;
 Enabling someone to opt out easily;
 Store and process personal data securely;
 Be able to prove that someone has given consent.
You can find all information about sending emails and the GDPR on the GDPR website. Note: also check
whether your mailing list software is GDPR compliant.
Building a mailing list
But how do you build a mailing list? You can do this in several ways. Below are 4 options.

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1. Give something away

Almost every business that is online collects email addresses. So how can you stand out from the rest? By
giving something away! With this, you reward people for signing up. For example, you can discount their
first order or send them a free e-book with tips.
2. Give exclusive access
You can also collect email addresses by giving people access to something exclusive. It could, for example,
be access to specific content, a webinar or luxury products.
3. Use pop-ups
Pop-ups are also an excellent way to build your mailing list. A pop-up is a window that appears
automatically (on the part of) a page. In such a pop-up, you can place a giveaway to make it attractive for
visitors to sign up.
Note: Do not overdo it with many pop-ups on 1 page or huge pop-ups. This creates frustration among
visitors, making them less likely to sign up.
4. Use social media
Finally, you can build a mailing list on your social media channels. For example, create a (paid) post that
includes a prize draw when followers sign up for your newsletter. Just make sure it is clear to people what
they are leaving their email addresses for.
Buying an email list?
Do you need to manage to collect email addresses? Or have you just started your business? Then there is
the option of buying one or more mailing lists. According to the GDPR, you can use contact data from a
third party when this party has informed the receivers.
Not a good idea
Often, buying a mailing list alone is not a good idea. This is because it is no guarantee of success, as
chances are that people are not interested in what you send. In addition, a bought mailing list may contain
outdated information, so your emails may arrive later. It would help if you also were sure that the third
party had asked permission from the receiver. If this is not the case, you can not email them.
How to create a mailing list?
You create a mailing list in a few steps. Which ones they are, you will read below.
1. Define the target audience
First, determine your target audience. In doing so, ask yourself questions like:
 Who do you want to reach?
 What are they interested in?
 What is the goal?
 How do you achieve this goal?
By explicitly writing down the target audience, it is easier to determine the content of the email (s) and
create specific mailing lists.
2. Purchase mailing list software
As a second step, purchase your mailing list software. Choose a tool that suits your goals and budget.
Examples include Mailchimp, HubSpot or ConvertKit.
3. Collect email addresses
Of course, you also need to collect email addresses. For example, place a sign-up form on your website,
show a pop-up or create a separate sign-up page. Make sure the threshold is as low as possible, for
instance, by only asking for a name and email address. The disadvantage of this, however, is that you need
to create specific mailing lists.

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4. Create the content of the email(s)

Next, determine the content of the email(s). Ensure the content is relevant to your target audience or
mailing list. So sending an email about children’s clothes to someone interested in menswear will not work.
Reading tip: In our article on email marketing, you will find tips on how to write a marketing email.
5. Send the email(s)
It’s time to send the email(s). For example, you can send a weekly or monthly email. But don’t overdo it.
After all, no one is waiting for an inbox with dozens of emails from the same company.
6. Analyse
Finally, you want to know how the email is performed. Did people open the email and take action? Or did
nothing happen with it? By evaluating emails regularly, you can make adjustments if necessary.
To mail your mailing list, you must create your email address. Need one? Then purchase email
hosting from [Link] today so you can mail it under your domain name.
3.5 Usenet Newsgroup Concepts:
Usenet is the contraction of the User Network. It resembles just a Bulletin Board System where users can
post articles or posts on various topics.
The Usenet of newsgroups is hierarchical and, similar to the Domain Name System (DNS). A usenet is a
collection of user-submitted articles or posts on various topics/subjects that are posted to servers on
world wide network.

Working of Usenet
The Usenet is built on the Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP), a standard Internet protocol in
Request for Comments (RFC) 977 and has two components:
 A client/server portion that allows users running client software such as Google Chrome to interact
with the news servers by downloading a list of available. Usenet newsgroups on the server, read
existing messages in the newsgroups, reply to existing messages, or post new messages.
 A server/server portion that allows news servers to establish communication with each other, for the
purpose of replicating messages from newsgroups. For example, Microsoft Exchange Server fully
supports NNTP.
Newsgroup
Each topic collection of posted notes is known as a Newsgroup. There are thousands of newsgroups and
it is also possible to form a new one. Many newsgroups are hosted on Internet-connected servers but they
can also be hosted from servers without the Internet.

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Usenet’s original protocol was Unix-to-Unix Copy Protocol (UUCP), but today the Network News
Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is used. Most browsers such as those from Netscape Navigator and Microsoft,
provide Usenet support and access to any newsgroups that you select. On the world wide web, Google
and other similar sites provide a topic-oriented directory as well as a search approach to newsgroups and
help users register to participate in them. In addition to this, there are other newsgroup readers, such as
Knews, that run as separate programs.
Advantages of Newsgroups
 Newsgroups are similar in some ways to mailing lists, but they tend to have a structure better than
mailing lists, which makes it more likely that they will be around for much longer than a mailing list.
 It is easy to find a newsgroup, and they sometimes have a moderator. A moderator is one who makes
sure that things stay on track and do not disintegrate into something that is unpleasant socially.
 Most often than not, you will be able to find the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) section on a
newsgroup, which is always helpful for those who are not sure about anything. These questions tend
to be the ones that are asked repeatedly and so negate the need for constantly answering the same
questions.
Disadvantages of Newsgroups
 A newsgroup is not as fast as an email or even a mailing list. Often there might be a latency of at
least a day, often longer, before a response is given.
 The information on the newsgroup is submitted by users who lack actual knowledge about the
domain on which they are posting the article, so you need to be aware of this flaw, keep some
alternatives ready for this and do a bit of research first then only rely on it.
 A serious disadvantage to a newsgroup is that they can sometimes attract people who you would not
give the time of day to if you were to meet them in person. This is especially worrying if children
have access to newsgroups.
Usenet using a Browser
If the user doesn’t have an NNTP client program or if the company firewall will not allow a user to
access Usenet services using the well-known port number for NNTP (port 119), the user can still access
Usenet (if it can browse the Internet using a standard Web browser such as Microsoft Internet Explorer).
3.6 Reading Usenet News Groups:
How Does Usenet Work?
To access Usenet’s content – including binary downloads – you’ll require three primary components.
You’ll need a Usenet provider subscription (which gives you access to the files on Usenet’s servers),
a Usenet indexer (a search engine to search for content or find NZB files), and a Usenet
client or newsreader (which allows you to view Usenet content and/or download binary files).
1. Choosing a Usenet Provider
Unfortunately, you can’t just visit Usenet in the same way you’d visit a website. It’s also not a peer-to-
peer file-sharing service like most torrent download sites. Instead, you need a Newsgroup Service
Provider in order to access and browse Usenet.
There are quite a few good Usenet providers to choose from, but when choosing, you may want to consider
these major features:

 Retention
Retention refers to the length of time providers will guarantee you access to the Usenet content and
binaries they keep on their servers. As there is so much data being added to Usenet news servers each day,
providers can’t store it all forever.
To get around this, they’ll only retain a specific number of days’ worth of data (from the date it’s first
posted) and this varies from provider to provider. This is usually a year for most providers but can vary.

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Also, many providers have different retention days for binary and text, with text retention days usually
being higher (i.e. they may offer binaries for 365 days, while text will be retained for 1,460 days, for
example).

 Monthly Transfer
The monthly transfer denotes the amount of data you can download per month. This is usually measured
in GB and ranges from under 5GB to unlimited.
 Connections
This refers to the number of connections you can make simultaneously. This is relevant for users who
want to connect using more than one device at a time, but also to users who want to have more than one
download at any one time. Thankfully, most providers offer more connections than most casual users need.
 Completion Rate
This refers to the proportion of posts which are sent successfully between service providers. If there’s
even one missing post, this can cause a binary to be completely unreadable, so it’s important that your
provider has a high completion rate; however, most providers offer over 99% completion rate, so you
should be ok.
 Other Features
Features like SSL access and similar vary greatly between access providers. It’s always a good idea to
encrypt data when downloading and many Usenet providers offer this as standard. If not, you can
always use a VPN to improve your overall online security.
You should never use a company who doesn’t offer free support to its customers, no matter who they are!
It’s also important to ensure you can easily opt out if you’re not satisfied. Free trial periods are good too.

Once you’ve decided on a provider and signed up, take note of your username and password, as well as
the server address (this will look something like ‘[Link]’) and port number they’ll
provide you with (if SSL is included, be sure to get a port number for SSL too).
2. Set Up Your Index (Or Search Engine)
Unlike searching the internet using an internet search engine, Usenet’s data isn’t so easy to explore. Yes,
you can manually browse your Usenet provider’s servers, but this is truly cumbersome, so most people
get a Usenet index, as they do the work of a search engine for you.
All you need to do is enter the search term for what you want to find, select the posts that match, download
[Link] files you want, and then open them in a Usenet client/newsreader.
There are a number of indexers available and some are free if you’re willing to put up with adverts or
similar. Just search the web for ‘Usenet indexer’ to find the one that best suits you.
3. Find a Usenet Client (Or Newsreader)
A Usenet newsreader or client is a program that allows you to access and view Usenet content, as well
as actually download the binary files.
There are three client types:

 Newsreader
A newsreader is almost always used exclusively for browsing text in the newsgroups. You can actually
download binary files with a newsreader, but they are quite difficult to use, so not recommended for
downloads.
 NZB downloader
As the name indicates, these are designed for downloading the binary identified by [Link] files, but not
really meant for browsing text discussions.
 Hybrid

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This is a combination of the above two client types, allowing you to access text posts and download
binaries. Hybrid programs obviously have their benefits but they are almost never free, plus most of them
aren’t cross-platform programs, so this needs to be considered when choosing.
4. Final Steps
The specific sequence of final steps will depend on your chosen Usenet provider, newsreader/client, and
indexer. Nonetheless, here is a concise overview of the general steps you are likely to follow:
1. Install and begin to set up your Usenet client and/or newsreader.

2. When your client/newsreader asks you for your server details, this is where you add your Usenet
provider’s server details. You’ll also need to add your provider username and password.

3. If your provider gives you SSL, you should enable it here and add the relevant SSL number in the
‘Port’ field. The ‘Connections’ field is where you’ll enter the maximum number of connections your
provider gives you.

4. Continue following the instructions to set up your Usenet client/newsreader. It should restart after
completion and at this stage, you’ll likely be given the address you’ll use to access your
client/newsreader from your browser (it will probably be something similar to
‘[Link] Bookmark this link. This is the link you’ll need to access your
client/newsreader interface.
5. Open your Usenet search engine and search for whatever content you want. When you’ve found one,
click the box next to it and then click on the button that says something like ‘Create NZB’ or similar.
This will download [Link] file to your PC.

6. Once downloaded, go to your bookmarked link to access your client/newsreader interface. Find the
button/link that says something like ‘Add NZB’ and click it. When prompted, choose the file you just
downloaded and click ‘Upload’.

7. Your binary files will be downloaded to your computer in the form of [Link] files. When
these have fully downloaded, just un-rar them and place them in the file of your choice on your
computer. You can run a quick anti-virus check on your new file, but that’s it – you’ve downloaded
your first Usenet file!
 Automation
There are a number of programs that can automate some of this process for you, or schedule past or
future content downloads. Most of these programs focus on downloads of things like movies, TV series,
and music. Search the web for ‘Usenet automation’ to find these.
Should I Use a VPN with Usenet?
Accessing Usenet is fairly safe, but using a VPN will keep you even safer. When accessing Usenet,
your IP address will usually be logged and stored at the point when you get an NZB file from your
indexer, as well as when you’re downloading the binary file to your computer.
Using a VPN will prevent you from being seen at these points, and will stop anyone from seeing that
you’re accessing Usenet-related sites and programs online.
If you do decide to use a VPN to access Usenet, we recommend trying out Newshosting’s free trial that
runs for 14-days or 30GB, whichever comes first. Newshosting is a Usenet provider that offers
some excellent Usenet service plans as well as a VPN service as an add-on.

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It offers a truly secure connection using the OpenVPN, PPTP, or L2TP protocols and 256-bit
encryption, an easy-to-use interface, and amazing reliability with unlimited and unmetered
bandwidth.
If you want more functionality from your VPN, we suggest trying out user favorite ExpressVPN. It ranks
first in almost every category and offers users great speeds, streaming, and security.
3.7 Video Conferencing Concepts:
Commonly video conferencing is defined as the type of online meeting where two or more people converse
in real time. Using a strong and consistent internet connection the participants are able to see each other
here and are able to participate from any part of the world without any lag or time differences or drop in
communication quality.
Hence businesses are able to use video conferencing for collaboration communication and continued
engagement with users outside of the organization. The need to use hardware that is highly recommended
with video conferencing software is a necessity for these quality experiences.
What Are The Types Of Video Conferencing?
Organizations are quickly adapting to the needed ecosystem for video conferencing. Meeting rooms are set
up with cable internet connection and Powerful audio systems high definition cameras and peripherals. By
using hardware that is specifically designed for video conferencing meetings the experience of the users is
amplified along with seamless voice and video conferencing software.
Considering the extensive use of this communication mode, two types of video conferencing have
emerged: point to point conferencing and multipoint conferencing.
1. Point-To-Point Conferencing
In this method only two participants can communicate in real time despite their geographic locations. In
this type of video conferencing feature, the participants use the platform for face to face discussions. For
example, it is an ideal method for job interviews to be conducted as top employers are able to speed up the
hiring process and can complete the hiring procedures especially the job interview virtually through video
conferencing.
This is already a much popular option in the covid situation and brings a lot of flexibility to companies that
operate remotely. It also improves the modern customer experience that businesses offer at a personalized
level. The ideal software and the video conferencing hardware always provide the actual connection
between any concerns and enquiries raised by clients as well.
2. Multipoint Conferencing
In this method of video conferencing 3 or more participants are involved in interaction creating the essence
of group video conferencing. This is essentially a feature that is different from the traditional three-way
calling that is typical of business phone systems.
In multipoint conferencing the host will provide links for participants to join meetings in larger groups. For
example It supports businesses in several office locations and remote workers by becoming an office
bridge for multipoint conferencing. For software and hardware bridging, creating a hub for large
conference calls, multiple point conferencing is a solution.
Top Features Of Video Conferencing Software
Video conferencing software is essentially VoIP Technology where transfer of audio and video signals
between the two locations is based on special algorithms called codecs or coder decoder. In the first stage
of data compression the image of the meeting or conference is captured by the camera analogue video
Signals and speech and audio signals are all packaged into data sellers for the internet to understand and
transfer to begin.

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In data the compression or decoding of the transfer of the data over the internet and tourist destination is
reached and changes back to analogue video and audio signals for attendees at the other side to hear and
see. Video conferencing app are focusing on echo cancellation and other sound delays.
There are several features that makeup video conferencing software which are discussed in the
following sections:
Screen Sharing
In video conferencing solutions, screen sharing is a critical must-have feature. It is necessary for sharing
documents in common while presenting or discussing or representation of graphs or images during
the video calling. Screen sharing enables the whole discussion to be centered on the visual on the screen
while the speakers continue to speak about the contents on the page or referencing it for discussions.
It enables the whole team to brainstorm and effectively contribute to the discussion. It provides for a
sufficient information exchange for the large group to arrive at necessary decisions. Point to be noted here
is that some apps allow only the host to share the screen and others are allowed upon permission to present.
Simultaneous Annotation
In this feature the need to annotate on a shared screen is supported. In the middle of discussions and
exchange of ideas points or concepts need to be annotated and shared on screen for discussion points to be
made. Hence it is important that simultaneous annotation features are enabled for a video conferencing
solution. Some apps allow only the host to annotate and simultaneous annotation is enabled upon
permission.
Chat Box
In this feature the chat box supports multiple conversations between the participants. This allows a chat
box to appear allowing the participants to mention and suggest without interrupting the speaker.
This could be for discussions among the listeners or for the speaker to observe and included within the
conversation bus stop new paragraph while most apps offer private as well as group chat option apart from
chat logs being saved at the end of the video conference.
File Sharing
This is one of the important features of video conferencing as it allows for secure transfer of files between
participants on the live video call. It helps in providing the complete document transfer are video audio
recording within the meeting itself and will not have to depend on third party solutions.
The most important aspect here is that a secure ecosystem is available for the transfer of data since
businesses constantly use confidential documents with use for audio bytes.
Video Call Recording
A video conferencing solution is a necessary procedure for business operations. Firstly, recorded video
calls will help those who have not attended the meeting or for others to evaluate and gather information, or
gather business insights for further referencing and documentation purposes or simply streaming at a later
point of time.
Typically, this video call recording feature is a must for documentation purposes and for later discussions.
Device Switching
One of the key features in video call recording is device switching. Device switching is a seamless ability
to continue the video conference across different devices. An essential feature is that there is no description
of a meeting needed, and the participants can have mobility and better access to quality internet that’s
enough for device switching conferences.
What Are The Advantages & Disadvantages Of Video Conferencing Solution?
Video conferencing solutions have changed the way organizations communicate and collaborate.
Companies are able to rely on audio conferencing as well as video call recording to improve the
communication of your organization.

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Advantages Of Video Conferencing:

 Improved Productivity
Collaborative work options are enhanced in video conferencing essentially allowing for screen
sharing group chat system transfer collaboration which brings about improved output. It also builds on
audio conferencing email SMS where everybody is able to synchronize and arrive at informed decisions at
a faster rate and efficiently.
 Humanized Conversations
Communicators are able to see each other, in the video conferencing solution this visual aspect helps in
improving the video conferencing experience and has become one of the most engaging forms for
exchange of conversation. It helps in building body language and facial expressions and does not need a
face to face interaction.
 Superior Communication
It is a fact that visual data is processed faster by humans than text data or audio data. Hence, in a video
conference the participants have better understanding and information retained is also comparatively better
to a telephonic call or a teleconference. At the same time, visual communication ensures that all
participants are alert and there is focus on the discussion points.
 Well-Structured Meetings
It is identified that video conferencing are scheduled and follow strict start and end time. The participants
have time bound discussions and conversation and the primary focus on their gender is updated
consistently.
Disadvantages Of Video Conferencing:
 No Personal Interaction
While video conferencing is a good solution, it fails in the one aspect of perception – that of personal
interaction. The virtual space face to face interaction is highly technology -laden and possibilities of
missing out on the vital body language in a pixelated image and stuttering videos.
 Technical Issues
The most important factor of video conferencing is the difficulties of technical glitches. Whenever there is
a failure in hardware or software on a network there are no smooth transitions available. This results in
failure of remote connections and hampers the change in the settings of the video calls.
 Expensive to Set Up
Video conferencing solutions are very expensive to set up. The simple features available on a tight budget
will be insufficient to support advanced features that require substantial expenditure in the process.
 Different Time Zones
Fundamental issues with video conferencing are the different time zones in which year the communicators
are attending. However, this is not really a video conferencing solution drawback but more towards the
working capacities of the organization. The comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of video
conferencing solutions leads to the conclusion that the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.
Business using video conferencing solutions is of vital importance both strategically as well as monetary.
When you consider using a business tool the cost effectiveness apart from the technology compatibility and
its long term life cycle needs to be analyzed.
A much recommended provider in this category is MirrorFly SDK and APIs that have ready-to–use
UI, secure video conferencing, add-on, hosting customization and more. Some of the top-features this
complete solution will provide are as follows:
 Video recording
 Best HD video quality
 Group video calls

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 Video broadcasting
 Screen sharing
 Low latency technologies & Easy scaling
 Cross-platform support
 End-to-End security
As the top-rated video conferencing solution for Enterprises, MirrorFly allows unlimited conferencing with
data usage and participants to collaborate at the highest level.

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Unit- IV Web Concepts and Browsers

4.1 Introduction
4.2 WWW Concepts
4.3 Elements of Web
4.4 Clients and Servers
4.5 URL
4.6 Transfer Protocol
4.7 Web Browsers
4.7.1 Netscape Navigator and Communicator
4.7.2 Microsoft Internet Explorer
4.1 Introduction:
Web Concepts:
The Web's Uniform Interface is based on a large and growing set of specifications. These specifications establish the shared
concepts that everybody can build upon. One example for how this works is HTTP/1.1 Caching, which defines 5 HTTP Header
Fields, 7 HTTP Warn Codes, and 12 HTTP Cache Directives.
Web Concepts is an overview of these concepts and of the specifications defining them. Web Concepts
provides a structured and interlinked overview of the many concepts that together establish the Web
surface.
Web Concepts is openly managed on GitHub; feel free to fork, contribute, comment, or raise issues. The
site is generated from structured information representing the individual specifications, with the build
process currently being based on XSLT and Jekyll. If you are just interested in the data, read about the
JSON representations of Web Concepts.
Web Browsers:
Web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on
the World Wide Web. At present various desktop web browsers are available such as Netscape Navigator,
Internet Explorer, Opera, Safari, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome etc.
A web browser takes you anywhere on the internet. It retrieves information from other parts of the web and
displays it on your desktop or mobile device. The information is transferred using the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol, which defines how text, images and video are transmitted on the web.
This means that a website can Creating consistency between browsers, so that any user can enjoy the
internet, regardless of the browser they choose, is called web standards.
When the web browser fetches data from an internet connected server, it uses a piece of software called a
rendering engine to translate that data into text and images. This data is written in Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and web browsers read this code to create.
Hyperlinks allow users to follow a path to other pages or sites on the web. Every webpage, image and
video has its own unique Uniform Resource Locator (URL), which is also known as a web address. When a
browser visits a server for data, the web address tells the browser where to look for each item that is
described in the html, which then tells the browser where it goes on the web page.
Cookies
Websites save information about you in files called cookies. . For example, when you go to a website, the
page remembers your username and password – that’s made possible by a cookie.
There are also cookies that remember more detailed information. This means that a site can provide you
more targeted content – often in the form of ads. There are types of cookies, called third-party cookies, that
come from sites you’re not even visiting at the time and can track you from site to site to gather
information about you, which is sometimes sold to other companies. Sometimes you can block these kinds
of cookies, though not all browsers allow you to.

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Nearly all major browsers have a private browsing setting. These exist to hide the browsing history from
other users on the same computer. Many people think that private browsing or incognito mode will hide
both their identity and browsing history from internet service providers, governments and advertisers. They
don’t. These settings just clear the history on your system, which is helpful if you’re dealing with sensitive
personal information on a shared or public computer. Firefox goes beyond that.
Example: Firefox helps you be more private online by letting you block trackers from following you
around the web.
Web Browsers Work:
Most major web browsers let users modify their experience through extensions or add-ons. Extensions are
bits of software that you can add to your browser to customize it or add functionality. Extensions can do all
kinds of fun and practical things like enabling new features, foreign language dictionaries, or visual
appearances and themes.
All browser makers develop their products to display images and video as quickly and smoothly as
possible, making it easy for you to make the most of the web. They all work hard to make sure users have a
browser that is fast, powerful and easy to use. Where they differ is why. It’s important to choose the right
browser for you. Mozilla builds Firefox to ensure that users have control over their online lives and to
ensure that the internet is a global, public resource, accessible to all.
4.2 WWW Concepts:
Where the Web was born
Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989, while working at
CERN. The Web was originally conceived and developed to meet the demand for automated information-
sharing between scientists in universities and institutes around the world.
Tim Berners-Lee, pictured at CERN (Image: CERN)
CERN is not an isolated laboratory, but rather the focal point for an extensive community that includes
more than 17 000 scientists from over 100 countries. Although they typically spend some time on the
CERN site, the scientists usually work at universities and national laboratories in their home countries.
Reliable communication tools are therefore essential.
The basic idea of the WWW was to merge the evolving technologies of computers, data networks and
hypertext into a powerful and easy to use global information system.
Web server in the US came online in December 1991, once again in a particle physics laboratory:
the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in California. At this stage, there were essentially only two
kinds of browser. One was the original development version, which was sophisticated but available only on
NeXT machines. The other was the ‘line-mode’ browser, which was easy to install and run on any platform
but limited in power and user-friendliness. It was clear that the small team at CERN could not do all the
work needed to develop the system further, so Berners-Lee launched a plea via the internet for other
developers to join in. Several individuals wrote browsers, mostly for the X-Window System. Notable
among these were MIDAS by Tony Johnson from SLAC, Viola by Pei Wei from technical publisher
O'Reilly Books, and Erwise by Finnish students from Helsinki University of Technology.
Early in 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois
released a first version of its Mosaic browser. This software ran in the X Window System environment,
popular in the research community, and offered friendly window-based interaction. Shortly afterwards the
NCSA released versions also for the PC and Macintosh environments. The existence of reliable user-
friendly browsers on these popular computers had an immediate impact on the spread of the WWW. The
European Commission approved its first web project (WISE) at the end of the same year, with CERN as
one of the partners. On 30 April 1993, CERN made the source code of WorldWideWeb available on a
royalty-free basis, making it free software. By late 1993 there were over 500 known web servers, and the

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WWW accounted for 1% of internet traffic, which seemed a lot in those days (the rest was remote access,
e-mail and file transfer). 1994 was the “Year of the Web”. Initiated by Robert Cailliau, the First
International World Wide Web conference was held at CERN in May. It was attended by 380 users and
developers, and was hailed as the “Woodstock of the Web”.

As 1994 progressed, stories about the Web hit the media. A second conference, attended by 1300 people,
was held in the US in October, organised by the NCSA and the newly-formed International WWW
Conference Committee (IW3C2). By the end of 1994, the Web had 10 000 servers - 2000 of which were
commercial - and 10 million users. Traffic was equivalent to shipping the entire collected works of
Shakespeare every second. The technology was continually extended to cater for new needs. Security and
tools for e-commerce were the most important features soon to be added.
What is World Wide Web (WWW, W3)?
The World Wide Web -- also known as the web, WWW or W3 -- refers to all the public websites or pages
that users can access on their local computers and other devices through the internet. These pages and
documents are interconnected by means of hyperlinks that users click on for information. This information
can be in different formats, including text, images, audio and video.
How does the World Wide Web work?
Paving the way for an internet revolution that has transformed the world in only three decades, the World
Wide Web consists of multiple components that enable users to access various resources, documents and
web pages on the internet. Thus, the WWW is like a vast electronic book whose pages are stored or hosted
on different servers worldwide.
These pages are the primary component or building blocks of the WWW and are linked through
hyperlinks, which provide access from one specific spot in a hypertext or hypermedia document to another
spot within that document or a different one. Hyperlinks are another defining concept of the WWW and
provide its identity as a collection of interconnected documents.
Hypertext is a method for instant information cross-referencing that supports communications on the web.
Hypertext makes it easy to link content on one web page to content on another web page or site. Hypertext
and HTTP enable people to access the millions of websites active on the WWW.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is another key component of the WWW. It enables users to
access web pages by standardizing communications and data transfer between the internet's servers and
clients.

Most web documents and pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a text-based way
of describing how content within an HTML file is structured. HTML describes the structure of web pages
using elements or tags and displays the content of these pages through a web browser.
To access one of these pages, a user and their client machine supply a universal identifier to the web server
via a browser. This identifier may be a uniform resource locator (URL) or uniform resource identifier
(URI) and is unique to each web page.

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A collection of web pages belonging to a URL is called a website. For example, [Link] is a
website, while [Link] is a web page.
The browser accepts the URL or URI provided by the user and communicates it to the web server. The
server then retrieves the web page associated with that URL or URI and presents it to the user in the
browser window of their client machine.

History of the World Wide Web

British physicist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. Along with colleagues at Geneva-based
CERN -- the European Organization for Nuclear Research -- Berners-Lee had been working on the concept
since 1989. Their goal was to combine available technologies and data networks to create a user-friendly
system for global communication and information sharing. At the time, they began work on the first WWW
server, which they called httpd. They also dubbed the first client WWW.
Originally, WWW was a what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) hypertext browser/editor that ran in
the NextStep environment. In 1990, Berners-Lee demonstrated the first web server and browser at CERN
to explain his idea of a World Wide Web. The web then entered the public eye in 1991 when Berners-Lee,
who also developed hypertext, announced his creation on the [Link] newsgroup; at the same time, he
created the world's first web page with the address [Link]
This page, which remains operational as of 2022, includes information and links about the WWW project
and web servers. In 1993, CERN made the W3 technology publicly available on a royalty-free basis
Web browser evolution and the growth of the World Wide Web
Berners-Lee and his team developed a text-based web browser that was released in early 1992. However, it
took the release of the more user-friendly Mosaic browser in 1993 to kickstart the rapid acceptance and
adoption of the WWW. Mosaic provided a point-and-click graphical interface that people had been using in
personal computers for a few years. This familiarity increased public interest in WWW and led to its rapid
growth all over the world.
Entrepreneur and software engineer Marc Andreessen and others developed Mosaic in the United States.
They also developed the Netscape Navigator browser that quickly became the dominant browser in 1994,
until it was displaced by Microsoft's Internet Explorer in 1995. IE dominated the web browser space until it
was challenged by browsers like Mozilla Firefox -- released in 2004 -- and Google Chrome -- released in
2008. In 2015, Microsoft discontinued IE and replaced it with the Microsoft Edge browser.

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World Wide Web versus the internet

The web is often confused with the internet even though they're different. While the two are intricately
connected, the web is just one of many applications built on top of the internet, a vast, global network of
multiple smaller networks. The internet incorporates supporting infrastructure and other technologies that
connect networks, websites and users to each other. In contrast, the web is a communications model or
platform that enables the retrieval or exchange of information over the internet through HTTP. Through the
WWW, users can access web pages over the internet by following a series of HTTP links. To retrieve and
view these pages, users need to use a browser installed on the computer, such as Microsoft Edge, Google
Chrome or Mozilla Firefox.
Both the internet and the web operate within a client-server model. A server is a program that accepts
requests from other computers, known as clients, on the network to store and transmit documents. Clients
request documents from a server when a user asks for them and then displays them on the user's screen.
The world's first web server went online in 1991 in the U.S. By the end of the year, there were only 10 web
servers around the world. Two years later, there were 500 operational web servers; by 2016, the number of
web servers had grown to more than 100 million.
Since the release of CERN's first web browser, the WWW has evolved into a massive ecosystem of
websites and users. As of 2022, approximately 5 billion people -- or 63% of the world's population -- use
the web, which is believed to contain approximately 1.88 billion websites.

Client devices communicate with servers to access web pages using HTTP.
What will Web 3.0 look like compared to Web 1.0 and 2.0?
The World Wide Web continues to evolve. The first generation of the Web, Web 1.0, which Berners-Lee
originally defined in 1989, had no video content and a page format similar to that of a printed page. Web
1.0 was primarily static and focused on providing information.
Around the beginning of the 21st century, Web 2.0 ushered in a new era that was more interactive and
dynamic than its predecessor and focused on user collaboration, universal network connectivity and
communications channels. As smartphones, mobile internet access and social networks spurred the growth
of Web 2.0, applications -- such as Airbnb, TikTok, Twitter and Uber -- which increased online
interactivity and utility, became increasingly popular.
With a lofty goal of creating more intelligent, connected and open websites, Web 3.0 is still in its infancy
and has yet to be defined fully. Unlike Web 2.0, which includes applications and websites that entail user-
generated content, Web 3.0 is expected to be fully decentralized; this places content creation in the hands
of the creators rather than platform owners.

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What is a WebElement?
A WebElement, in this case, a WebElement is essentially an HTML element on a website. HTML
documents consist of HTML elements. Each HTML element consists of a start tag and an end tag. The
content lies between the tags.
Syntax
<start tag> content </end tag>
 HTML elements can contain other elements. Every HTML document carries such HTML elements.
 WebElement Selenium WebDriver methods apply to almost all DOM elements on a web page.
 Each WebElement is represented the WebElement interface – which is used by to interact with visible and
invisible elements on the web page.
Every WebDriver method either returns a value or returns null/void (AKA no value). The WebElement
class in WebDriver works the same way.
Here’s an example of a WebElement command:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link](“UserName“));
This command returns either the element being searched for or returns null/void.
All actions on any WebElement will always populate against any element, regardless of whether an action
is valid on the element or not.
List of WebElement Commands
1. sendKeys() command
sendKeys command allows the user to type content automatically into an editable field while executing
tests. These fields are web elements that can be identified using locators like element id, name, class name,
etc.
Syntax:
[Link](“text”);
This method uses CharSequence as a parameter. It returns nothing. It works with text entry elements such
as INPUT and TEXTAREA.
Code:
// Create WebElement

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WebElement elesendKeys = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));

// Perform sendKeys operation
[Link]("Cheese");
// OR
// Send value to particular WebElement e.g: Textbox.
[Link]([Link]("TextBox")).sendKeys("Cheese");

2. isDisplayed() command
The isDisplayed command in Selenium verifies if a particular element is present and displayed. If the
element is displayed, then the value returned is true. If not, then the value returned is
a NoSuchElementFound exception.
Syntax:
[Link]();

The code below verifies if an element with the id attribute value next is displayed.
boolean eleSelected= [Link]([Link]("xpath")).isDisplayed();

Full code:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("UserName"));
boolean status = [Link]();
//Or can be written as
boolean status = [Link]([Link]("UserName")).isDisplayed();
Note: If an element is present on a web page but its property is set to hidden, the Selenium WebDriver
isDisplayed method will return NoSuchElementFound. This is because even though the element is present
in the DOM, it is not visible to users.
3. isSelected() command
This command only works on input elements such as radio buttons, checkboxes, select options, and menu
items. It is used to determine if an element is selected. If the specified element is selected, the value
returned is true. If not, the value returned is false.
Syntax:
[Link]();
Code:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("Sex-Male"));
boolean status = [Link]();
//Or can be written as
boolean staus = [Link]([Link]("Sex-Male")).isSelected();
4. submit() command
This command is handy when interacting with forms (or elements within a form) on a web page. It doesn’t
require a parameter and returns nothing.
As evident from its name, the command submits relevant information (as required) on a website. If the
action triggered by this command changes the current web page, the method will wait until the new page
loads.
Syntax:
[Link]();

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Code:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("SubmitButton"));
[Link]();
//Or can be written as
[Link]([Link]("SubmitButton")).submit();
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("SubmitButton"));
[Link]();
//Or can be written as
[Link]([Link]("SubmitButton")).submit();
Also Read: Selenium Commands every Developer or Tester must know
5. isEnabled() command
This WebElement in Selenium command verifies if an element is enabled on the web page. If the element
is enabled, it returns a true value. If not, it returns a false value.
Syntax:
[Link]();
The code below verifies if an element with the id attribute value next is enabled.
boolean eleEnabled= [Link]([Link](“xpath”)).isEnabled();
Full Code:
// Create WebElement
WebElement eleEnabled = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));
// Perform isEnabled operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Verify WebElement is Enabled or Not? e.g: Radio / Checkbox.
[Link]([Link]("Text")).isEnabled();

6. getLocation() command
This command retrieves the location of a specified element on a web page. It does not require a parameter
and returns the Point object as its result. The X and Y coordinates of the element can be derived from the
Point object returned.
Syntax:
[Link]();
Code:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("SubmitButton"));
Point point = [Link]();
[Link]("X cordinate : " + point.x + "Y cordinate: " + point.y);
7. clear( ) command
When using this WebElement in Selenium command, its value will be cleared if the element in question is
a text entry. It doesn’t require a parameter and returns nothing.
Syntax:
[Link]();
The clear() method does not affect other web elements. The text entry elements here
are INPUT and TEXTAREA.
Code:
// Create WebElement

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WebElement eleClear = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));

// Perform clear operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Clear particular WebElement e.g: Textbox.
[Link]([Link]("TextBox")).clear();

8. getText() command
This command retrieves the text within a specific web element. This includes the inner text as well as the
sub-elements sans whitespace. It doesn’t require a parameter and returns a string value. This method is
often used to verify labels, messages, error, and other elements (involving text) displayed to website
visitors.
Syntax:
[Link]();
Code:
// Create WebElement
WebElement elegetText = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));
// Perform getText operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Get text of Particular WebElement &amp; Store into String
[Link]([Link]("TextBox")).getText();

9. getTagName() command
This method retrieves the tag name of the specified element. It does not require a parameter and returns a
string value as its result.
Syntax:
[Link]();
This command does not return the value of the name attribute. It returns the tag. For example, if the code
is <input name=”foo”/>, then this command will return the tag, i.e. “input”.
Code:
// Create WebElement
WebElement elegetTagName = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));
// Perform getTagName operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Able to get TagName of Particular WebElement &amp; Store into String
[Link]([Link]("TextBox")).getTagName();
// Create WebElement
WebElement elegetTagName = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));
// Perform getTagName operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Able to get TagName of Particular WebElement &amp; Store into String

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[Link]([Link]("TextBox")).getTagName();

10. getCssValue() command

This command retrieves the CSS property value of a specified element. It does not require a parameter and
returns a string value as its result.
Syntax:
[Link]();
 Color values must be returned as rgba strings. For example, if the “background-color” property is set as
“green” in the HTML source, the value returned by the command will be “rgba(0, 255, 0, 1)”.
 Shorthand CSS properties (e.g. font, background, border, margin, border-top, margin-top, padding,
padding-top, outline, list-style, pause, cue) are not returned, as required with DOM CSS2 specifications.
Access the longhand properties directly in order to access the desired values.
Code:
//Locating textBox element using CSS Selector
WebElement textBox = [Link]([Link]("div#textBox "));

//Performing sendKeys operation on the element

[Link]("stqatools");

11. getAttribute() command

This command retrieves the attribute value of a specified element. It uses String as the parameter and
returns a string value as its result.
Syntax:
[Link]();
Code:
WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("SubmitButton"));
String attValue = [Link]("id"); //This will return "SubmitButton"

12. click() command

The click() command lets the tester replicate the click action on a button, link, radio button or checkbox. In
Webdriver, the click occurs after the element is found. In Selenium IDE, the recorder identifies the
element, the command itself performs the click.
Syntax:
[Link]();
Code:
// Create WebElement
WebElement eleclick = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));
// Perform click operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Click on any WebElement e.g: Button.
[Link]([Link]("Button_Id")).click();
// Create WebElement

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WebElement eleclick = [Link]([Link]("TextBox"));

// Perform click operation
[Link]();
// OR
// Click on any WebElement e.g: Button.
[Link]([Link]("Button_Id")).click();
13. getSize() command
This command retrieves the height and width of a specific rendered element. It does not require a
parameter and returns the Dimension object as its result.
Syntax:

[Link]();

Code:

WebElement element = [Link]([Link]("SubmitButton"));

Dimension dimensions = [Link]();
[Link](“Height :” + [Link] + ”Width : "+ [Link]);
WebElement in Selenium commands are essential for testers seeking to automate user actions on a website
to verify its performance.
4.4 Clients and Servers
o A client and server networking model is a model in which computers such as servers provide the
network services to the other computers such as clients to perform a user based tasks. This model is
known as client-server networking model.
o The application programs using the client-server model should follow the given below strategies:

o An application program is known as a client program, running on the local machine that requests
for a service from an application program known as a server program, running on the remote
machine.
o A client program runs only when it requests for a service from the server while the server program
runs all time as it does not know when its service is required.
o A server provides a service for many clients not just for a single client. Therefore, we can say that
client-server follows the many-to-one relationship. Many clients can use the service of one server.
o Services are required frequently, and many users have a specific client-server application program.
For example, the client-server application program allows the user to access the files, send e-mail,

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and so on. If the services are more customized, then we should have one generic application
program that allows the user to access the services available on the remote computer.
Client
A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting service from the server. A client program is
a finite program means that the service started by the user and terminates when the service is completed.
Server
A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing services to the clients. When the client
requests for a service, then the server opens the door for the incoming requests, but it never initiates the
service.
A server program is an infinite program means that when it starts, it runs infinitely unless the problem
arises. The server waits for the incoming requests from the clients. When the request arrives at the server,
then it responds to the request.
Advantages of Client-server networks:
o Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in client-server networks, i.e., all the data is stored in
a server.
o Security: These networks are more secure as all the shared resources are centrally administered.
o Performance: The use of the dedicated server increases the speed of sharing resources. This
increases the performance of the overall system.
o Scalability: We can increase the number of clients and servers separately, i.e., the new element can
be added, or we can add a new node in a network at any time.
Disadvantages of Client-Server network:
o Traffic Congestion is a big problem in Client/Server networks. When a large number of clients
send requests to the same server may cause the problem of Traffic congestion.
o It does not have a robustness of a network, i.e., when the server is down, then the client requests
cannot be met.
o A client/server network is very decisive. Sometimes, regular computer hardware does not serve a
certain number of clients. In such situations, specific hardware is required at the server side to
complete the work.
o Sometimes the resources exist in the server but may not exist in the client. For example, If the
application is web, then we cannot take the print out directly on printers without taking out the print
view window on the web.
4.5 URL
URL: Uniform Resource Locator
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is the address of a resource, which can be a specific webpage
or a file, on the internet. It is also known as web address when it is used with http. It was created in 1994
by Tim Berners-Lee. URL is a specific character string that is used to access data from the World Wide
Web. It is a type of URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).
Every URL contains the following information:
o The scheme name or protocol.
o A colon, two slashes.
o A host, normally called a domain name but sometimes as a literal IP address.
o A colon followed by a port number.
o Full path of the resource.

The URL of a web page is displayed above on the page in the address bar. A typical URL looks like this:

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[Link]
The above URL contains:
o protocol: http
o host or domain: [Link]
o Path of the resource: /full-form
A URL can be entered manually by typing it in the address bar of your web browser. If the URL does not
contain a valid server, a browser may display a "Server not found" error and if the path in the URL is
incorrect, the browser may display a "404 error". A URL does not contain spaces and uses forward slashes
to represent different directories. So, dashes and underscores are used separate the words of a web
address.
What is URI
URI stands for Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a generic term for all the name and addresses which show
objects on the World Wide Web. It is generally a sequence of characters which identifies a logical resource
or the name and location of a file or resource in a uniform format.
A URI can be of two types: Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and Uniform Resource Names (URNs). It
enables resources to be accessed by other computers across a network or over the World Wide Web.
4.6 Transfer Protocol
There are two prevailing types of data transfer protocol in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite:
 UDP – User Datagram Protocol
 TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
The key difference between them is that TCP rigorously checks for errors and guarantees in-order-delivery
of traffic while UDP does not and relies on higher layer protocols for error and flow management.
UDP comes in handy whenever an unacknowledged transfer is required between data sending and
receiving applications. UDP is typically used for broadcast and multicast traffic, real-time traffic (VoIP, IP
Video, etc.) or for stateless communications such as DNS. UDP is pretty fast but doesn’t guarantee
delivery or ordering.
Then there’s TCP which is a connection-oriented protocol used to establish and maintain a connection until
application programs at each end have finished exchanging data. TCP segments data into packets and
provides a reliable data-transfer service. It’s used for bulk data transfer and for interactive data
applications. TCP dominates most IP networks nowadays (90% of all traffic).
The growing load on IP networks is putting a lot of pressure of TCP traffic to “deliver the goods” or
packets so to speak. Unlike UDP, TCP gets impacted by loss, latency and incorrect configurations. TCP
performance is something that simply cannot be overlooked if end-user quality of experience is to be
maintained in this day and age of heavy data traffic. Exactly knowing one’s data transfer protocol or
troubleshooting TCP issues in and out should be every service providers’ mantra.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It lies
between the Application and Network Layers which are used in providing reliable delivery services.
In this article, we will discuss about Transmission control protocol in detail. We will also discuss IP, the
Difference between TCP and IP, and the working process of IP here. Let’s proceed with the definition of
TCP First.
What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?
Transmission Control Protocol is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps in the
exchange of messages between different devices over a network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which
establishes the technique for sending data packets between computers, works with TCP.

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The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in ensuring that
information is transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual connection between the sender and
receiver.
The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in ensuring that
information is transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual connection between the sender and
receiver.

What is Internet Protocol (IP)?

Internet Protocol is a method that is useful for sending data from one device to another from all over the
internet. Every device contains a unique IP Address that helps it communicate and exchange data across
other devices present on the internet.
For more, you can refer to the TCP/IP Model.
Working of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
To make sure that each message reaches its target location intact, the TCP/IP model breaks down the
data into small bundles and afterward reassembles the bundles into the original message on the opposite
end. Sending the information in little bundles of information makes it simpler to maintain efficiency as
opposed to sending everything in one go.
After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles may travel along multiple routes if
one route is jammed but the destination remains the same.

TCP
For Example: When a user requests a web page on the internet, somewhere in the world, the server
processes that request and sends back an HTML Page to that user. The server makes use of a protocol
called the HTTP Protocol. The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to set the required connection and send
the HTML file.
Now, the TCP breaks the data into small packets and forwards it toward the Internet Protocol (IP) layer.
The packets are then sent to the destination through different routes.
The TCP layer in the user’s system waits for the transmission to get finished and acknowledges once all
packets have been received.
Features of TCP/IP
Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are mentioned below.

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 Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by
assigning numbers to each and every single one of them. A specific Byte Number is assigned to data
bytes that are to be transferred while segments are assigned sequence numbers. Acknowledgment
Numbers are assigned to received segments.
 Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till the completion
of the process. The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains same before and after
transmission.
 Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice – versa at the same
time. It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and receiver.
 Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is done to ensure
reliable delivery. The receiver continually hints to the sender on how much data can be received
(using a sliding window).
 Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data transfer. Error control
is byte-oriented. Segments are checked for error detection. Error Control includes – Corrupted
Segment & Lost Segment Management, Out-of-order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.
 Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network. Congestion
level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.
Advantages of TCP
 It is a reliable protocol.
 It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.
 It gives flow control.
 It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order that it was sent.
 Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or individual.
 It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network and a domain name to each site thus making
each device site to be distinguishable over the network.
Disadvantages of TCP
 TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become an issue for small networks with low
resources.
 TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.
 It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any protocol stack other than the TCP/IP
suite. E.g., it cannot work with a Bluetooth connection.
 No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.
4.7 Web Browsers
web Browser is an application software that allows us to view and explore information on the web. User
can request for any web page by just entering a URL into address bar. Web browser can show text, audio,
video, animation and more. It is the responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and commands
contained in the web page. Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days graphical-based or
voice-based web browsers are also available. Following are the most common web browser available
today:

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Architecture
There are a lot of web browser available in the market. All of them interpret and display information on the
screen however their capabilities and structure varies depending upon implementation. But the most basic
component that all web browser must exhibit are listed below:
 Controller/Dispatcher
 Interpreter
 Client Programs
Controller works as a control unit in CPU. It takes input from the keyboard or mouse, interpret it and
make other services to work on the basis of input it receives.
Interpreter: It receives the information from the controller and execute the instruction line by line. Some
interpreter is mandatory while some are optional For example, HTML interpreter program is mandatory
and java interpreter is optional.
Client Program describes the specific protocol that will be used to access a particular service. Following
are the client programs tat are commonly used:
 HTTP
 SMTP
 FTP
 NNTP
 POP

\
Starting Internet Explorer Internet explorer

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It is a web browser developed by Microsoft. It is installed by default with the windows operating system
howerver, it can be downloaded and be upgraded.
To start internet explorer, follow the following steps:
 Go to Start button and click Internet Explorer.

The Internet Explorer window will appear as shown in the following diagram:

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Accessing Web Page

Accessing web page is very simple. Just enter the URL in the address bar as shown the following diagram:

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Navigation
A web page may contain hyperlinks. When we click on these links other web page is opened. These
hyperlinks can be in form of text or image. When we take the mouse over an hyperlink, pointer change its
shape to hand.
Key Points
In case, you have accessed many web pages and willing to see the previous webpage then just click back
button You can open a new web page in the same tab, or different tab or in a new window.
Saving Webpage
You can save web page to use in future. In order to save a webpage, follow the steps given below: Click
File > Save As. Save Webpage dialog box appears. Choose the location where you want to save your
webpage from save in: list box. Then choose the folder where you want to save the webpage
 Specify the file name in the File name box.
 Select the type from Save as type list box.
Webpage, complete
Web Archive
Webpage HTML only
Text File
 From the encoding list box, choose the character set which will be used with your webpage. By
default, Western European is selected.
 Click save button and the webpage is saved.
Saving Web Elements
Web elements are the pictures, links etc. In order to save these elements follow the steps given below:
 Right click on the webpage element you want to save. Menu options will appear. These options
may vary depending on the element you want to save.

Favourites
The Favourites option helps to save addresses of the webpages you visited oftenly. Hence you need not to
remember long and complex address of websites you visit often. In order to open any webpage, you just
need to double click on the webpage that you have marked from bookmarks list.
Adding a web page to your Favourites In ordered to add website to your favourite list, follow the steps
given below:
 Open webpage that you want to add to your favourite.
 Click on favourite menu and then click on Add to Favourites opton. Addfavourites

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Note:
You can also click Favourites button available in the toolbar. Favourites panel will open in the left
corner of the internet explorer window. Click add button, AddFavourites dialog box will apppear.

 In AddFavourites dialog box, the Name: text box will contains the name of the web page that
you want to add to favourites.
 Click the Create in button, Favoutites folder will appear. Move to the folder where you want to
store the favourites by clicking on the folder name.
 Now click OK button to save the favourites
Opening Favourites
In order to open favourites, follow the steps given below:
 In the Favourite Panel, take the mouse over the site that you want to open. Now click on the address
to open that site.

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 Favourite can also be opened from the Favourites menu by selecting the appropriate one.

4.7.1 Netscape Navigator and Communicator

Netscape Communications Corporation (originally Mosaic Communications Corporation) was an
American independent computer services company with headquarters in Mountain View, California, and
then Dulles, Virginia.[2] Its Netscape web browser was once dominant but lost to Internet Explorer and
other competitors in the so-called first browser war, with its market share falling from more than 90 percent
in the mid-1990s[3] to less than one percent in 2006.[4]

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An early Netscape employee Brendan Eich created the JavaScript programming language, the
most widely used language for client-side scripting of web pages and a founding engineer of Netscape Lou
Montulli created HTTP cookies. The company also developed SSL which was used for securing online
communications before its successor TLS
4.7.2 Microsoft Internet Explorer
The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon,[15] who,
according to former project lead Ben Slivka,[16] used source code from Spyglass, Inc. Mosaic, which was an
early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering National Center for Supercomputing
Applications (NCSA) Mosaic browser.
In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a quarterly fee plus a percentage of
Microsoft's non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a name like NCSA Mosaic,
Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly
Features:
Internet Explorer has been designed to view a broad range of web pages and provide certain
features within the operating system, including Microsoft Update. During the height of the browser wars,
Internet Explorer superseded Netscape only when it caught up technologically to support the progressive
features of the time.[68][better source needed]
Standards support[edit]
Internet Explorer, using the MSHTML (Trident) browser engine:

 Supports HTML 4.01, parts of HTML5, CSS Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3, XML 1.0, and DOM Level
1, with minor implementation gaps.
 Fully supports XSLT 1.0 as well as an obsolete Microsoft dialect of XSLT often referred to as WD-xsl,
which was loosely based on the December 1998 W3C Working Draft of XSL. Support for XSLT
2.0 lies in the future: semi-official Microsoft bloggers have indicated that development is underway,
but no dates have been announced.
 Almost full conformance to CSS 2.1 has been added in the Internet Explorer 8 release.[69][70] The
MSHTML browser engine in Internet Explorer 9 in 2011, scored highest in the official W3C
conformance test suite for CSS 2.1 of all major browsers.
 Supports XHTML in Internet Explorer 9 (MSHTML Trident version 5.0). Prior versions can render
XHTML documents authored with HTML compatibility principles and served with a text/html MIME-
type.
 Supports a subset[71] of SVG in Internet Explorer 9 (MSHTML Trident version 5.0), excluding SMIL,
SVG fonts and filters.
Internet Explorer uses DOCTYPE sniffing to choose between standards mode and a "quirks mode" in
which it deliberately mimics nonstandard behaviors of old versions of MSIE for HTML and CSS rendering
on screen (Internet Explorer always uses standards mode for printing). It also provides its own dialect
of ECMAScript called JScript.
Internet Explorer was criticized by Tim Berners-Lee for its limited support for SVG, which is promoted
by W3C
Architecture
nternet Explorer uses a componentized architecture built on the Component Object Model (COM)
technology. It consists of several major components, each of which is contained in a separate dynamic-link

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library (DLL) and exposes a set of COM programming interfaces hosted by the Internet Explorer main
executable, [Link]:[84]
 [Link] is the protocol handler for HTTP, HTTPS, and FTP. It handles all network communication
over these protocols.
 [Link] is responsible for MIME-type handling and download of web content, and provides a
thread-safe wrapper around [Link] and other protocol implementations.
 [Link] houses the MSHTML (Trident) browser engine introduced in Internet Explorer 4, which
is responsible for displaying the pages on-screen and handling the Document Object Model (DOM) of
the web pages. [Link] parses the HTML/CSS file and creates the internal DOM tree
representation of it. It also exposes a set of APIs for runtime inspection and modification of the DOM
tree. The DOM tree is further processed by a browser engine which then renders the internal
representation on screen.
 [Link] contains the user interface and window of IE in Internet Explorer 7 and above.
 [Link] provides the navigation, local caching and history functionalities for the browser.
 [Link] is responsible for rendering the browser user interface such as menus and toolbars
Security:
Internet Explorer uses a zone-based security framework that groups sites based on certain
conditions, including whether it is an Internet- or intranet-based site as well as a user-editable whitelist.
Security restrictions are applied per zone; all the sites in a zone are subject to the restrictions.

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Unit V Search Engines

1. Search Engines
Define Search engines:
A search engine is a web-based tool that enables users to locate information on the World Wide Web. Popular
examples of search engines are Google, Yahoo!, and MSN Search. ... The information gathered by the spiders is
used to create a searchable index of the Web.
Aim of Search engine
The aim of the search engine algorithm is to present a relevant set of high-quality search results that will
fulfill the user’s query/question as quickly as possible.
What happens when a search is performed?
When a search query is entered into a search engine by a user, all of the pages which are deemed to be
relevant are identified from the index and an algorithm is used to hierarchically rank the relevant pages into
a set of results.
The algorithms used to rank the most relevant results differ for each search engine. For example, a page
that ranks highly for a search query in Google may not rank highly for the same query in Bing.
In addition to the search query, search engines use other relevant data to return results, including:
 Location – Some search queries are location-dependent e.g. ‘cafes near me’ or ‘movie times’.
 Language detected – Search engines will return results in the language of the user, if it can be
detected.
 Previous search history – Search engines will return different results for a query dependent on
what user has previously searched for.
 Device – A different set of results may besreturned based on the device from which the query was
made
How to work in Search engines:
Search engines work by crawling hundreds of billions of pages using their own web crawlers. These web
crawlers are commonly referred to as search engine bots or spiders. A search engine navigates the web by
downloading web pages and following links on these pages to discover new pages that have been made
available.
2. Web Directories
Define Web Directories:
A web directory is a database of websites, arranged in such a way that they facilitate navigation. These
links to web addresses are classified according to specific criteria, such as alphabetical order. This helps
users search for information in a specific way. Before search engines appeared, web directories were the
only way to search for websites on the internet.
How a Web Directory Works
A web directory organizes websites by topic and is usually managed by humans rather than software. A
search engine searches sites organized into a series of categories and menus. These collections of links are
generally much smaller than search engine databases, as the sites are viewed by human eyes rather than
spiders.
There are two ways for sites to be listed in a web directory, either when the website owner submits the site
by hand, or when the directory editor comes across that site and decides to list it.
The registration in search engines in SEO
Web directories were long ago one of the main strategies to promote a website, since they were a relatively
simple way to get links to a page to reinforce its positioning. However, after the arrival of the changes in
the Google algorithm with Panda and Penguin, the Indiscriminate registration in directories is an

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inadvisable practice which can have very detrimental negative effects on positioning SEO, since, although
the presence in thematic and quality directories is not harmful, many of them are considered as link farms.
That is why, currently, one of the first tasks that are addressed when starting an SEO project is a link audit
to detect harmful links.
The History of Web Directories
With the growth of the Internet and the proliferation of web pages, which grew exponentially,
a tool became necessary to group and order all this information. In this way the figure of web
directoriesemerged, gigantic databases that thanks to their great utility quickly became popular.
It was from 1995 when some of the most important web directories, such as Yahoo! or DMOZ,were
founded and began their growth. During this five years, web directories were undisputed kings of the
Internet, however, with the arrival of search engines, the operation of the Internet changed radically.
The appearance of search engines,led by Google, propitiated that the use of web directories as search
methods for web pages was progressively becoming disused. However, during the first years of Google it
encouraged the use of directories as a positioning tool in the search engine. The result was the proliferation
of a massive link building that multiplied the number of directories, causing a loss of value for the user
since these did not focus on generating quality content.
To solve this problem Google decided to punish this type of practice with the launch in 2012 of Google
Penguin, a powerful update of its logarithm that marked the beginning of the end of web directories. From
this moment, these were declining and losing millions of users, with many currently closed their doors (the
last DMOZ in 2017).
Types of Web Directories
We can classify web directories in different ways according to their typology:
 According to the cost: si these allow us to include the link to our website without any cost, we will
talk about free directories,if on the contrary it is necessary to pay to register our website we will
refer to paid directories. The latter are usually much more beneficial for SEO as a general rule,
since they are less saturated and transmit greater authority, while with free ones the opposite
happens in many and can even be as webspam issuers. There is a variant within the payment
directories known as bid directories in which this payment method is used to define the visibility
that our website will have within the directory.
 According to the correspondence: there are numerous directories that are free, but in exchange for
including our website they demand in return a link to it, which is known as reciprocal
directories,normally these are more relevant than free non-reciprocaldirectories.
 According to the geographical area: if it is a web directory that includes only web pages from a
certain geographical region, we are talking about a local directory,if it does not have any type of
geographical limitation it is a global directory.
 According to the specialization: if it is a directory that is not specialized in any specific topic, it is
called a general directory, when if it is it is a thematic directory. Thematic directories are as varied
as disciplines exist and we can find directories of sports, news, health, technology, shopping, etc …
Within the thematic directories we can highlight the academic directories that focus on certain
subjects as support for research or teaching.
Advantages and disadvantages of Web Directories
Among the main advantages and disadvantages of web directories, we find:
 You may transmit some authority to our website.
 They include descriptions of the websites.
 They present the classified information.
 They organize websites by theme.

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 They bring visibility to our website.

As for the disadvantages of web directories, we can highlight:
 In the vast majority of cases they do not represent a significant benefit for the increase in traffic on
our website.
 They are not usually updated too often.
 Their databases are much smaller than those of search engines.
 The descriptions they provide about websites are usually quite generalist and do not offer too
detailed information.
 Many of them are in disuse.
Main Web Directories
Although many of the most notorious web directories have fallen into disuse, it is worth mentioning some
of the most prominent:
 DMOZ:Born in 1998 as a global collaborative project, this directory that closed its doors in 2017
was one of the most successful with more than 5 million links to websites and almost 100,000
collaborators.
 Yahoo: Originally conceived as a web directory, the brand expanded rapidly by opening a web
portal and becoming the most popular search engine in the late 90s and early twenty-first century.
 Hotfrog: this is one of the most popular free online directories, aimed at business profiles.
3. Information Search
Information searching, also referred to as querying, refers to well-defined, targeted information seeking for
a clearly articulated information need, that is, when you have a fairly clear idea of the kind of information
you need.
3.1 infospace
Infospace, Inc. was an American company that offered private label search engine, online directory,
and provider of metadata feeds. The company's flagship met search site was Dogpile and its other notable
consumer brands were WebCrawler and MetaCrawler. After a 2012 rename to Blucora, the InfoSpace
business unit was sold to data management company OpenMail.
The company was founded in March 1996 by Naveen Jain after he left Microsoft. The company started
with six employees.
InfoSpace provided content and services, such as phone directories, maps, games and information on the
stock market, to websites and mobile device manufacturers.
3.2 Yahoo
If someone calls you a yahoo, it's definitely an insult. Yahoos are thought to have very little education and
culture. People think of yahoos as folks who were raised in a barn — maybe literally. A yahoo can also be
called a bumpkin, hayseed, hick, rube, yokel, or hillbilly.
4. Subscription:
Subscriptions involve the selling of products or services on a recurring basis for a specific period of time,
rather than as one-time purchases. Subscription prices can either be paid as a lump sum upfront for a
specific subscription period (i.e. an annual subscription to a magazine), or as recurring payments that are
made on a regular cadence (i.e. a monthly subscription for a gym membership). There are three main
subscription business models: curation subscriptions, replenishment subscriptions, and access
subscriptions.
5. Channels:
A channel is a passageway, a means of access for a thing, a communication, or an idea.
Think of a channel as sort of a tunnel or a funnel that moves something directly through. The
noun channel can be used for many such avenues. It can mean a waterway such as the English Channel —

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the "Chunnel" is a tunnel beneath the Channel — or a means of accomplishing a goal, as in "going through
legal channels." Use it as a verb when you channel your energies to achieve success.
6. Websites
A website is a collection of linked web pages (plus their associated resources) that shares a unique domain
name. Each web page of a given website provides explicit links—most of the time in the form of clickable
portions of text—that allow the user to move from one page of the website to another.
7. Making use of web resources
What is the objective of the news website?
News websites are sites devoted to delivering the news in a different format than television, print or radio.
News sites include sites that have a large variety of information which may not be considered "news" by all
audiences, but may include entertainment, games, news that may not be current but is interesting.
What is the most used news website?
The New York Times remained the biggest newsbrand in the US by number of visits, followed by CNN,
MSN, Fox News and Yahoo Finance (150.1 million visits) which knocked People out of fifth position.
What are the uses of News website?
Immediate Access to Breaking News: This means you can stay informed about the latest developments in
politics, technology, entertainment, or any other area of interest without having to wait for the next
morning's newspaper or evening news broadcast.
What are the uses of weather website?
There is a vast variety of end uses for weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important because they are
used to protect lives and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to
agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity market
Sports
What is the purpose of a sports website?
A sports team website can help encourage the whole team to give their 100% performance on each game. It
also motivates them to reach their goals by getting moral support from their fans and sponsors.
What are the resources in sports?
Resources are assets – such as people, machinery, raw materials, information, skills and financial capital.
As a sports administrator, you are responsible for supervising the use of the sporting organisation's
resources to achieve its goals
How is IoT used in sports?
IoT devices collect real-time data on players' movements and other physiological parameters during
training matches. Coaches leverage this data to gain significant insight into individuals, identifying
strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement.
personal finance
What is personal finance online?
Personal finance involves the management of money and other assets, as well as the development of
financial goals. It comprises banking, investing, and estate planning, among other tasks. The roadmap to
financial stability includes a lot more than monitoring everyday spending.
8. Entertainment
With most entertainment content such as films, TV programmes, and games now being accessed over the
internet, children are now able to watch content wherever and whenever they’re online. To make sure they
don’t stumble across things they shouldn’t, you can use our parental control guides to set the right controls
on their sites and apps to keep them safe.
Example: Disney Hot star, Google play, Netflix, youTube kids etc.

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9. Shopping:
A typical online store enables the customer to browse the firm's range of products and services, view
photos or images of the products, along with information about the product specifications, features and
prices. Online stores usually enable shoppers to use "search" features to find specific models, brands or
items.
Define Shopping website
An ecommerce website is your digital storefront on the internet. It facilitates the transaction between a
buyer and seller. It is the virtual space where you showcase products, and online customers make
selections. Your website acts as the product shelves, sales staff, and cash register of your online business
channel.
How to Build an Ecommerce Website Step-by-Step
1. Select your perfect ecommerce platform.
2. Purchase a domain name.
3. Find a developer.
4. Pick your ecommerce theme.
5. Customize your ecommerce template.
6. Add your products.
7. Set up payment options.
8. Sort out your shipping settings.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
Pros of Online Shopping Cons of Online Shopping

Huge variety and plethora of options. Shipping issues and delays.

No need to go in crowded places. Online payment fraud risks.

Privacy in terms of discreet shopping. No help of specialized staff or sales assistance.

How much is a shopping website?
So, how much does an eCommerce website cost overall?
Small/Medium Business Enterprise

E Commerce software $20 – $100/month $2000/month + $5000 setup

Creative $0 – $1000 setup >$5000 setup

Payment Processing 2.9% + $0.30/transaction 2.4% + $0.30/transaction

Total Setup $0 – $1000 + your time >$10000 + your time

10. travel

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It serves as a virtual gateway for potential travelers, providing comprehensive information on destinations,
itineraries, and unique offerings. The purpose of a travel agency website goes beyond mere information –
it enhances the customer experience, empowering them to make informed decisions.
How to create a travel website
Find a website host. Choosing a reliable web hosting service is the foundation of your travel website. ...
Choose a domain name. ...
Pick a website design template. ...
Create informative and engaging content. ...
Launch your website. ...
Promote your website. ...
Keep your website up to date.
How travel website work?
Online travel booking websites work by allowing users to search for and book flights, hotels, rental cars,
and other travel services on their platform. Users can enter their travel dates, destination, and other
preferences, and the website will generate a list of available options for them to choose from.
A travel website is a website that provides travel reviews, trip fares, or a combination of both.
The benefits of using the internet to promote tourism include wide promotion target, quick and accurate
access, and the ability for customers to share information
How much can a travel website make?
There is no ceiling to how much money you can earn. Travel bloggers can make anywhere between zero
and seven figures, depending on their monthly traffic, the products/services they recommend, and how well
their affiliate links convert to customers.
Who uses travel app?
According to statistics, more than 60% of users use travel mobile apps to plan their trips. This is because there are so
many logistical requirements and required planning, and these apps assist in making the journey easier.
Let's start with the top 10 best travel websites 2023 has to offer for great deals:
Kayak. ...
Scott's Cheap Flights. ...
Tripadvisor. ...
Priceline. ...
Hotwire. ...
Orbitz. ...
Hotels. You can get amazing daily deals on hotels that are up to half off the average cost. ...
Google Flights. Search for the best airfares across all airlines and track prices.
What is the main benefit of tourism?
There are several benefits of tourism on host destinations. Tourism boosts the revenue of the economy,
creates thousands of jobs, develops the infrastructures of a country, and plants a sense of cultural exchange
between foreigners and citizens.
11. Kids
How does a kid make a website?
Using a website builder is the best way to teach a child the fundamentals of building a website without
exposing them to the stress of proper coding. Without a code to worry about, the child can actually focus
on the process of adding, editing, and (sometimes) coding different website elements.
What is web design for kids?

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A web design course for kids teaches kids how to create their own websites. Web design refers to the
design of the website that is displayed on the internet, what we acutally see. It also refers to the user
experience of a website.
What is a web early childhood?
Webbing is a form of brainstorming used to visually collect captured ideas and thoughts from a group.
Spiderman impersonators and garden spiders are not the only ones who may be seen webbing in early
childhood classrooms.
12. communities
An online community website is a platform that allows people to connect with each other, share
information and ideas, and collaborate on projects. It's a great way to build relationships with others who
share similar interests.
What is an online community website?
An online community, also called an internet community or web community, is a community whose
members interact with each other primarily via the Internet. Members of the community usually share
common interests. For many, online communities may feel like home, consisting of a "family of invisible
friends"
What is the community site?
A community website is a standalone website that offers a destination for members of an online community
to gather, communicate, and build relationships with each other.
The Best 17 Community Platforms for 2024
Discourse.
Facebook Groups.
Vanilla Forums.
BuddyPress.
Uscreen.
Podia.
Kajabi.
Patreon.
Here are 10 of the main types of online communities and the key features of each one.
Brand communities. One of the most common types of online communities are brand communities. ...
Learning communities. ...
Networking communities. ...
Social communities. ...
Fan communities. ...
Insight communities. ...
Membership communities. ...
Local communities.

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What are communities used for?

A community is a familiar thread used to bring people together to advocate and support each other in the
fight to overcome those threats. As human beings, we need a sense of belonging, and that sense of
belonging is what connects us to the many relationships we develop.
What is community list?
Community lists are composed of a group of destinations which share a common property. Community
lists allow you to administer actions on a configured group instead of having to execute identical
commands for each member.
Why is community so important?
A community can also help us to develop a sense of identity. When we're part of a community, we learn
about shared values and beliefs. We also learn about our history and culture. This can help us feel we have
a place in the world, and that we are part of something important
14. health and medicine
What are the applications of Internet in health and medicine?
The Internet of Things can give patients a more accurate and detailed picture of their health. IoT devices
monitor the body's vital signs, such as heart rate or blood pressure, in real-time. This information can be
sent to healthcare professionals, who can then use it to make better decisions about treatment options.
How to create a website for healthcare?
Create a New Medical Website
Find a few example websites you like.
Find a few example websites you do not like so much.
Review the websites of your competitor(s).
Find, evaluate, and choose a website development firm. ...
Choose a domain name.
Choose a webhosting company (or use the web development company's web hosting).
What is the aim of healthcare website?
In the most general terms, the primary goal of creating a medical website is to connect people to healthcare
facilities and professionals. To do so, you should consider creating and increasing brand awareness of your
hospital by means of strategic planning and brand awareness plan execution.
What are the applications of digital medicine?
Digital medicine encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including techbio, healthtech, and biomedical
engineering. It involves the use of digital tools and platforms to collect, store, and analyze patient data,
including electronic health records, genomic data, and medical imaging.
14. Religion and Spirituality
What is the purpose of religion and spirituality?
Religion serves the important purpose of facilitating spirituality itself, but it serves other functions as well,
including those that are psychological, social, and physical. In contrast, spirituality focuses on the search
for one particular significant destination, the sacred.
What are the religious and spiritual practices?
Spiritual beliefs include the relationship to a superior being and are related to an existential perspective on
life, death, and the nature of reality. Religious beliefs include practices/rituals such as prayer or meditation
and engagement with religious community members.
What are some of the links between spirituality and religion?
Spirituality differs from religion as the latter is rather linked with specific rituals, institutional
dependencies, and social relationships, whereas the former is more about personal experience of what is
unseen and recognized as greater than ourselves (Tovar-Murray, 2011).

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