⚡ Unit 1 — Basic Electrical Concepts
Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, EMF
Concept Definition Formula Unit iagram
D
Tag
lectric
E he fundamental property of matter
T =n⋅e (where n is
q oulomb
C
Charge that causes it to experience a force number of (C)
(q) when placed in an electromagnetic electrons, e is
field. It can be positive or negative. charge of an
electron)
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| |Electric Current (I)| The rate of flow of electriccharge. Conventionally, it flows from positive
to negative. | I=dtdqor I=tq(for steady current) |Ampere (A)|
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| |Voltage (V)| The electrical potential differencebetween two points. It is the work done per
unit charge to move the charge between the two points. | V=qW(where W is work/energy) |Volt
(V)| | |Electromotive Force (EMF, E or E)| Theenergy (work) supplied by a source (like a
battery or generator) per unit charge to drive current in a circuit. It is essentially the source
voltage. | E=qW|Volt (V)|
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xample Question 1:If 1019 electrons pass through a point in a conductor in 2 seconds, what
E
is the electric current? (Charge of electron e=1.6×10−19 C).
Solution:
. C
1 alculate Total Charge (q):q=n⋅e=(1019)⋅(1.6×10−19)=1.6C
2. Calculate Current (I):I=tq=2 s1.6 C=0.8 A
Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity
● R
esistance (R):The opposition a material offers tothe flow of electric current. It
depends on the material's geometry and composition.
○ Formula:R=Aρ⋅l
■ ρ:Resistivity(Ω⋅m)
■ l: Length of the conductor (m)
■ A: Cross-sectional area of the conductor (m2)
Unit:Ohm (Ω)
○
● Resistivity (ρ):An intrinsic property of a materialthat quantifies how strongly it opposes
electric current. It is independent of the conductor's shape or size.
○ Unit:Ohm-meter (Ω⋅m)
Conductivity (σ):The measure of a material's abilityto conduct electric current. It is the
●
reciprocal of resistivity.
○ Formula:σ=ρ1
○ Unit:Siemens per meter (S/m)
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xample Question 2:A copper wire has a length of 50 m and a cross-sectional area of 1 mm2.
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If the resistivity of copper is 1.72×10−8 Ω⋅m, what is the resistance?
Solution:
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1 onvert Area to m2:A=1 mm2=1×(10−3 m)2=1×10−6 m2
2. Calculate Resistance (R):R=Aρ⋅l=1×10−6 m2(1.72×10−8Ω⋅m)⋅(50 m)=0.86 Ω
Power & Energy
● E lectric Power (P):The rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form (like
heat, light, or mechanical energy).
○ Formulas:
P=V⋅I
P=I2⋅R
P=RV2
○ Unit:Watt (W)
● Electric Energy (W or E):The total amount of electricalwork done or energy consumed
over a period of time.
○ Formula:E=P⋅t (where t is time in seconds)
○ Unit:Joule (J)orWatt-hour (Wh)orkilowatt-hour(kWh)
xample Question 3:A 12 Ω resistor is connected acrossa 24 V source for 5 minutes.
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Calculate the power dissipated and the total energy consumed.
Solution:
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1 alculate Power (P):P=RV2=12 Ω(24 V)2=12576=48W
2. Convert Time to Seconds:t=5 min×60 s/min=300 s
3. Calculate Energy (E):E=P⋅t=(48 W)⋅(300 s)=14,400J
Ohm’s Law
● S tatement:At a constant temperature, the current(I) flowing through an ideal conductor
is directly proportional to the voltage (V) applied across its ends, and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R).
● Formula:V=I⋅R
○ It can also be written as I=RVor R=IV.
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xample Question 4:A light bulb draws 0.5 A of currentwhen connected to a 120 V power
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supply. What is the resistance of the bulb?
Solution:
. U
1 se Ohm's Law:R=IV
2. Calculate Resistance (R):R=0.5 A120 V=240 Ω
Series and Parallel Circuits
Feature Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
Current (I) ame through all
S Divides among branches.
components.
Voltage (V) Divides across components. Same across all components.
otal Resistance
T Req=R1+R2+R3+… Req1=R11+R21+R31+…
(Req)
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xample Question 5:Three resistors, R1=10 Ω, R2=20Ω, and R3=30 Ω, are connected in
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parallelacross a 12 V source.
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1 alculate the equivalent resistance (Req).
2. Calculate the total current (Itotal) drawn from the source.
Solution:
1. E quivalent Resistance (Req):
Req1=101+201+301=606+3+2=6011
Req=1160≈5.45 Ω
2. Total Current (Itotal):
Itotal=ReqV=60/11 Ω12 V=6012×11=60132=2.2 A
🧭 Unit 2 — DC Circuits & Network Theorems
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
● S tatement:The algebraic sum of currents enteringa node (or junction) must be equal to
the algebraic sum of currents leaving the node. Alternatively, the algebraic sum of all
currents meeting at any node in a circuit is zero.
● Formula:∑Iin=∑Ioutor ∑I=0 (Currents entering arepositive, leaving are negative, or
vice-versa).
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
● S tatement:The algebraic sum of all voltages (sourcevoltages and voltage drops)
around any closed loop or mesh in a circuit is zero.
● Formula:∑V=0 (Voltage rises are taken as positive,voltage drops as negative, or
vice-versa).
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xample Question 6 (KCL & KVL):In a circuit, fourcurrents meet at a node: I1(in), I2=3 A
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(out), I3=5 A (in), and I4=1 A (out). Find I1.
Solution (KCL):
Iin=∑Iout
∑
I1+I3=I2+I4
I1+5 A=3 A+1 A
I1=4 A−5 A=−1 A
ote: The negative sign means the actual direction of I1isoutof the node, opposite to the
N
assumed direction.
Mesh & Nodal Analysis
These are systematic methods for solving complex circuits.
● M esh Analysis:Based onKVL. It usesmesh currents(currents circulating in a closed
loop) as variables. It is suitable for planar circuits (circuits that can be drawn on a flat
surface with no crossing branches).
○ Procedure:Assign mesh currents, apply KVL to eachmesh, and solve the
resulting system of linear equations for the unknown mesh currents.
● Nodal Analysis:Based onKCL. It usesnode voltages(the voltage potential of a node
with respect to a reference node, usually ground) as variables.
○ Procedure:Choose a reference node (ground), assignunknown node voltages
to the other essential nodes, apply KCL at each unknown node, and solve the
resulting system of linear equations for the unknown node voltages.
[Image comparing a circuit solved by mesh analysis and the same circuit solved by nodal
analysis]
Superposition Theorem
● S tatement:In any linear circuit containing multipleindependent sources, the current or
voltage at any point is the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced by each
independent source acting alone, while all other independent sources are deactivated
(i.e., voltage sources are replaced by ashort circuit,and current sources by anopen
circuit).
● Applicability:Only tolinearcircuits.
Thevenin & Norton Theorem
These theorems simplify a complex linear circuit into a single equivalent source and impedance.
Theorem Equivalent Circuit Parameters iagram
D
Tag
hevenin's
T voltage source
A th: Open-circuit voltage across the load
V
Theorem Vthin series with an terminals. Rth: Equivalent resistance
equivalent resistance measured across the load terminals with
Rth. all independent sources deactivated.
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| |Norton's Theorem| Acurrent sourceINin parallelwith an equivalent resistance RN(where
RN=Rth). | IN: Short-circuit current across the load terminals. RN: Equivalent resistance
measured across the load terminals with all independent sources deactivated. |
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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
● S tatement:For a DC voltage source with an internalresistance (Rint) and an external
load (RL), the maximum power is delivered from the source to the load when the load
resistance isequalto the Thevenin equivalent resistanceof the source network (i.e.,
RL=Rth).
● Formula for Maximum Power (Pmax):
Pmax=4⋅RthVth2
Star–Delta Transformation
hese transformations are used to simplify bridge circuits or circuits that cannot be easily
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reduced using series/parallel combinations.
Transformation Resistance Formulas Diagram Tag
Delta (Δ) to Star (Y) R1=RAB+RBC+RCARABRCA
Star (Y) to Delta (Δ) RAB=R3R1R2+R2R3+R3R1
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Note: RAB,RBC,RCAare Delta resistors; R1,R2,R3are Star resistors.
Source Transformation
● C oncept:A practical voltage source (an ideal voltagesource Vsin series with a resistor
Rs) can be transformed into an equivalent practical current source (an ideal current
source Isin parallel with the same resistor Rs), and vice-versa.
● Formulas:
○ Is=RsVs
○ Vs=Is⋅Rs
● The resistor Rsremains the same in both configurations.
[Image showing the transformation between a voltage source and a current source]
🌊 Unit 3 — AC Fundamentals
AC Waveform Basics
nAlternating Current (AC)waveform changes its magnitude and direction periodically,
A
typically following a sinusoidal pattern.
C
● ycle:One complete set of positive and negative valuesof an AC quantity.
● Instantaneous Value (v,i):The value of the voltageor current at any specific instant of
time (t).
● Peak Value (Maximum Value, Vm,Im):The maximum valueattained by the AC quantity
during one cycle.
Frequency, Time Period, Angular Velocity
Concept Definition Formula Unit
Time Period (T) he time required to complete one
T T=f1 Seconds (s)
cycle.
Frequency (f) he number of cycles completed per
T f=T1 Hertz (Hz)
second.
ngular Velocity T
A he rate of change of the angle in a ω=2πf adians per second
R
(ω) sinusoidal quantity. (rad/s)
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RMS & Average Values
These values are used to compare AC quantities to their equivalent DC counterparts.
Concept Definition inusoidal
S Application
Formula
oot Mean
R he equivalent DC value that
T Vrms=2 sed for most power
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Square (RMS) would produce the same calculations and
Value heating effect as the AC measuring AC
(Vrms,Irms) signal. quantities.
Vm≈0.707⋅Vm
verage Value
A he average of all
T avg=π2Vm≈0.
V sed in rectifiers/DC
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(Vavg,Iavg) instantaneous values over 637⋅Vm conversion.
one half-cycle. (Over a full
cycle, it is zero).
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Form Factor & Peak Factor
● Form Factor (Kf):Ratio of the RMS value to the Average value.
○ Formula:Kf=Average ValueRMS Value
○ F or a pure sine wave: Kf=VavgVrms=2Vm/πVm/2 =22
π≈1.11
Peak Factor (Crest Factor, Kp):Ratio of the Peakvalue to the RMS value.
●
○ Formula:Kp=RMS ValuePeak Value
○ For a pure sine wave: Kp=Vm/2 Vm=2 ≈1.414
Instantaneous Values
The general mathematical expression for a sinusoidal AC voltage is:
v(t)=Vmsin(ωt)
If the wave has an initial phase angle (ϕ):
v(t)=Vmsin(ωt±ϕ)
● (t): instantaneous voltage (V)
v
● Vm: maximum (peak) voltage (V)
● ω: angular velocity (rad/s)
● t: time (s)
● ϕ: phase angle (radians or degrees)
Phase Difference
● C oncept:The difference in electrical angle (degrees or radians) between two sinusoidal
waveforms of the same frequency.
● Leading:Wave A isleadingWave B if A reaches itsmaximum (or zero crossing) earlier
than B.
● Lagging:Wave B islaggingWave A if B reaches itsmaximum later than A.
[Image showing two sinusoidal waves (voltage and current) with a clear phase difference]
Power & Power Factor
In AC circuits, especially those with inductance (L) or capacitance (C), current and voltage can
be out of phase, leading to three types of power.
Power Type Description Formula Unit
ctive
A he actual power consumed or dissipated in
T =VrmsIrms
P Watt (W)
Power (P) the circuit (converted to heat, work, etc.). cosϕ
eactive
R he power that flows back and forth between Q
T =VrmsIrms V
olt-Ampere
Power (Q) the source and the reactive elements (L and sinϕ Reactive
C). It performs no useful work. (VAR)
pparent
A he total power delivered by the source. The S=VrmsIrms
T olt-Ampere
V
Power (S) vector sum of Active and Reactive power. (VA)
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● P
ower Factor (PF):The cosine of the phase difference (ϕ) between voltage and current.
It represents the fraction of the apparent power that is actually active power.
○ Formula:PF=cosϕ=SP=Apparent PowerActive Power
○ Leading PF:Current leads voltage (typically due tocapacitance).
○ Lagging PF:Current lags voltage (typically due toinductance).
○ Unity PF:Current is in phase with voltage (purelyresistive or resonant circuit).
xample Question 7:An AC source delivers 10 kVA (ApparentPower) to a load with a lagging
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power factor of 0.8. Calculate the Active Power and Reactive Power.
Solution:
1. Active Power (P):P=S⋅cosϕ=10 kVA⋅0.8=8 kW
2. Reactive Power (Q):We need sinϕ. Since cos2ϕ+sin2ϕ=1:
inϕ=1−cos2ϕ
s =1−(0.8)2 =1−0.64 =0.36 =0.6
Q=S⋅sinϕ=10 kVA⋅0.6=6 kVAR
🔄 Unit 4 — Single-Phase AC Circuits
Impedance & Reactance
In AC circuits, the opposition to current flow is calledImpedance(Z).
● Reactance (X):The opposition to AC current flow offeredby inductors and capacitors.
○ Inductive Reactance (XL):XL=ωL=2πfL (Ω)
○ Capacitive Reactance (XC):XC=ωC1=2πfC1(Ω)
● Impedance (Z):The total opposition to AC current,combining resistance (R) and
reactance (X). It is a complex number.
○ Formula (General):Z=R+jX (where X is XL−XC)
○ Unit:Ohm (Ω)
Pure R, Pure L, Pure C Circuits
Component urrent-Voltage
C Impedance hase
P ower Factor
P iagram
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Relationship (Z) Angle (ϕ) (PF) Tag
ure
P urrent isin phase
C Z=R 0∘ os(0∘)=1
c
Resistor (R) with voltage. (Unity)
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| |Pure Inductor (L)| Currentlagsvoltage by 90∘.| Z=jXL| 90∘ (Lagging) | cos(90∘)=0 (Zero
Lag) |
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| |Pure Capacitor (C)| Currentleadsvoltage by 90∘. | Z=−jXC| −90∘ (Leading) | cos(−90∘)=0
(Zero Lead) |
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RL, RC, RLC Series Circuits
These circuits are characterized by the vector (phasor) sum of resistance and reactance.
1. RL Series Circuit (Resistor and Inductor)
● Impedance:Z=R+jXL
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● agnitude of Impedance:∣Z∣=R2+XL2
● Phase Angle:ϕ=arctan(RXL) (Currentlagsvoltage)
2. RC Series Circuit (Resistor and Capacitor)
● Impedance:Z=R−jXC
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● agnitude of Impedance:∣Z∣=R2+XC2
● Phase Angle:ϕ=−arctan(RXC) (Currentleadsvoltage)
3. RLC Series Circuit (Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor)
Net Reactance:X=XL−XC
●
● Impedance:Z=R+j(XL−XC)
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● agnitude of Impedance:∣Z∣=R2+(XL−XC)2
● Phase Angle:ϕ=arctan(RXL−XC)
○ If XL>XC: Circuit isinductive(lagging PF).
○ If XC>XL: Circuit iscapacitive(leading PF).
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Phasor Representation
● C oncept:A phasor is a rotating vector that represents a sinusoidally varying quantity
(like voltage or current) at a specific frequency. Its length represents theRMSorPeak
magnitude, and its angle represents thephase.
● Purpose:Phasor diagrams are used to visually representthe phase relationships
between different voltages and currents in an AC circuit and allow for vector
addition/subtraction.
Resonance in RLC Circuit
eries Resonanceoccurs in a series RLC circuit when the inductive reactance equals the
S
capacitive reactance.
● C
ondition for Resonance:XL=XC
2πfrL=2πfrC1
● Resonant Frequency (fr):The frequency at which resonance occurs.
fr=2πLC 1
At Resonance:
●
○ Net reactance X is zero (XL−XC=0).
○ Impedance ∣Z∣ is minimum, equal to R.
○ Current I=V/R is maximum.
○ Power factor cosϕ is unity (ϕ=0∘).
Power Triangle
he relationship between the three powers (P,Q,S) in an AC circuit is represented by the Power
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Triangle, which is a right-angled triangle.
● ypotenuse:Apparent Power (S, in VA)
H
● Adjacent Side:Active Power (P, in W)
● Opposite Side:Reactive Power (Q, in VAR)
● Power Factor Angle:ϕ (the angle between P and S)
Formulas from the triangle:
S
● 2=P2+Q2
● P=Scosϕ
● Q=Ssinϕ
xample Question 8:A 230 V,50 Hz source is connected to a series circuit with R=10 Ω, L=20
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mH, and C=100 μF. Find the impedance and the resonant frequency.
Solution:
1. C alculate Reactances (XL,XC):
XL=2πfL=2π(50 Hz)(20×10−3 H)≈6.28 Ω
XC=2πfC1=2π(50 Hz)(100×10−6 F)1≈31.83 Ω
2. Calculate Impedance (Z):
X=XL−XC=6.28−31.83=−25.55 Ω
∣Z∣=R2+X2 =(10)2+(−25.55)2 ≈100+652.8 ≈752.8
≈27.44 Ω
3. C
alculate Resonant Frequency (fr):
fr=2πLC 1=2π(20×10−3 H)⋅(100×10−6 F) 1≈112.54Hz
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