Common mormon

Papilio polytes
 Variation
• Differences between individuals belonging to the same species are
called variation.
Keywords

phenotype The observable traits of an organism.

variation Differences between members of the same species.

DNA A large chemical molecule made of nucleotides. It carries the genetic

code of all living organisms.

mutation A change in the nucleotide base sequence in the DNA of the genome.

genetic variant A region of DNA in which the sequence of nucleotide bases has
been changed.
 Variation and phenotype
Explanation

The observable traits an organism has are known

as its phenotype.
The differences in phenotype between members of the
same species are known as variation.

Variation in phenotype is caused by two main factors:

1. Our environment or lifestyle

2. Our genetic information your eye colour is part of
your phenotype
 Variation and phenotype
Explanation

Variation caused by the environment is known as environmental

variation.
The environment is the surroundings of an individual organism, including:

● temperature

● sunlight

● pollutants

● availability of nutrients

● soil pH
 Genetic variation
• Meiosis creates genetic variation between the gametes produced by an
individual
• This means each gamete carries substantially different alleles
• During fertilization, any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete to
form a zygote
• This random fusion of gametes at fertilization creates genetic variation
between zygotes as each will have a unique combination of alleles
• Zygotes eventually grow and develop into adults
• Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
• Blood group
• Eye colour
• Gender
• Ability to roll tongue
• Whether ear lobes are free or fixed
Discontinuous variation is almost always caused only by genes.
 Environmental variation
• Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors
such as climate, diet, accidents, culture and lifestyle
• In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the
organism’ and so can include factors like climate, diet, culture,
lifestyle and accidents during lifetime
• Examples include:
• An accident may lead to scarring on the body
• Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
• Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a
certain language with a certain accent
• A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
 Genetic and environmental causes
• Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic variation alone
• Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic
and environmental causes, for example:
• Tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
• Their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
• However, if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
• Therefore, their environment also has an impact on their height
• Another way of looking at this is that although genes decide what
characteristics we inherit, the surrounding environment will affect
how these inherited characteristics develop
Keywords

natural selection Organisms that are better adapted to their environment are
more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes to
their offspring.

adaptation A feature that organisms have that helps them live in a

particular place and survive.
genetic variant A genetic variant is a region of DNA in which the sequence
of nucleotide bases has been changed.

phenotype The observable traits of an organism.

 Mutations and natural selection
Natural selection is the process in which organisms that are better adapted to
their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes to
their offspring.

In order for natural selection to occur,

there must be variation within a
population.

The variation we see in species is the

result of mutations in DNA.

The peppered moth is a classic example of

natural selection.
 Mutations and natural selection
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide base sequence of DNA.
This change creates a genetic variant.
A genetic variant is a region of DNA in which the sequence of nucleotide bases has been
changed.

original
sequence in
DNA C A G T C A C A G T C A
mutation

genetic
variant
C A G T C C C A G T C A
 Mutations and natural selection
When a mutation changes an organism’s phenotype, the change can be …

harmful advantageous neither

Some elephants inherit a mutation Birds with longer Human earlobes can
that causes females to be born beaks are able to get be attached or
without tusks and males to die more food from bird detached.
before birth. feeders.
 Mutations and natural selection
Genetic variants that code for advantageous traits
become more common over generations because of
natural selection.
This is because organisms that have advantageous
traits are:
● better adapted to their environment
● more likely to survive John Gould ([Link].1804 - [Link].1881) - From "Voyage
of the Beagle"

● more likely to reproduce The beaks of Galápagos

● more likely to be the ones that pass on their finches are highly
genetic variants to the next generation. specialised to the food they
eat.
 An example in plants
White clover is a species of plant that grows across
Europe, Asia and North America.
It grows in grassy rural areas and has become common
in grassy areas in cities.
The white clover plant produces hydrogen cyanide, a
poisonous compound that deters herbivores from
eating it.
However, the white clover plant in urban areas
produces much less hydrogen cyanide.
Scientists think natural selection is the reason for this
white clover plant
change.
 An example in plants
Advantage
In cities, the white clover plant that produced less
hydrogen cyanide had an advantage.

White clover plants in cities didn’t need to deter

herbivores, so producing a lot of hydrogen cyanide was a
waste of energy and nutrients.

Not producing as much hydrogen cyanide was an

advantageous adaptation because these individuals could
put more energy and nutrients into growth.
herbivores don’t graze in
cities
 An example in plants
Competition
White clover plants, like all plants, are in competition with
each other for limited resources such as light, seed
dispersers, pollinators, space, water and minerals.

The white clover plants that produced less hydrogen

cyanide were better adapted to compete because they
could grow larger.

They were more likely to compete successfully for

resources, as they are devoting less of their energy to
producing hydrogen cyanide.
white clover plant
 An example in plants
Survival, reproduction and inheritance

Due to natural selection, white clover plants that

produced less hydrogen cyanide were more likely to
survive and reproduce.

Many of the offspring inherited the advantageous

genetic variant, so it became more common in each
generation.

After many generations, the majority of urban white

clover plants produced far less hydrogen cyanide.
white clover plant
 An example in humans
Humans and most mammals drink milk when they are young. Some lose
the ability to digest milk as they grow older.

The enzyme lactase is needed to break

down lactose sugar present in dairy
products such as milk.

In most mammals, once infants start eating

solid food, they stop producing lactase and
can no longer digest lactose.

a calf drinking milk from its mother

 An example in humans
Around 10 000 years ago mutations occurred that created genetic variants
in humans that made them “lactose tolerant”.

People with these genetic variants continued to

produce lactase enzyme into adulthood, which
enabled them to digest lactose.

Roughly half of humans now have these genetic

variants, although they are distributed unevenly
across the world.

lactose tolerance is very common in Scientists think that natural selection led to the
Bedouin people prevalence of these genetic variants.
 An example in humans
Variation
A random mutation created a genetic variant. Individuals with this genetic variant
continued to produce the lactase enzyme into adulthood.
This is an example of variation.

original
sequence in
DNA

mutation

genetic
variant
 An example in humans
Advantage and competition

In populations in which animals are farmed for milk, being

able to digest lactose is an advantageous adaptation.

People with the genetic variants had more food sources

available to them. This gave them an advantage.

All organisms compete for finite resources such as mates,

territory and food.
cows and goats are
Individuals with the ability to digest lactose into adulthood farmed for their milk
competed more successfully for food.
 An example in humans
Survival, reproduction and inheritance
Due to natural selection, individuals with the genetic
variants were more likely to survive as they had access to
more food sources.
This meant they were more likely to reproduce.
Many of their offspring inherited the advantageous genetic
variants, which became more common in each generation.
Eventually, the majority of individuals in certain parts of the
world had this adaptation.

For example, more than 90% of people of Irish descent are

able to digest lactose into adulthood. milk contains a sugar
called lactose
 An example in humans
Put these statements in order to describe the process of natural
selection.

a Random mutations can lead to variation in a population. 1

b This makes them more likely to survive and reproduce. 4

Some mutations create genetic variants that cause adaptations
c 2
which give individuals an advantage.

d Many of the offspring produced have the genetic variants and over
5
generations they become more common.

e These adaptations allow them to compete successfully. 3

Summary Natural selection at the genetic level

The process of natural selection involves the following steps:

1. Variation - due to genetic variants, caused by random mutations, there is variation
among populations.
2. Advantage - some genetic variants cause adaptations in the phenotype which give
individuals an advantage.
3. Competition - having an advantage allows individuals to compete more successfully.

4. Survival - they are more likely to survive.

5. Reproduction - they are more likely to have offspring.
6. Inheritance - many of the offspring inherit the genetic variants and over generations they
become more common in the population.
Mutations and natural selection
Check

True or false?
Mutations in DNA are always harmful.

T True F False

Justify your answer

a Mutations can have no effect, be harmful or useful.

b Mutations are always useful to the individual.

Mutations and natural selection
Check

Which statement is true?

Advantageous genetic variants become less common over generations.

a

Advantageous genetic variants become more common over generations.

b

Advantageous genetic variants do not become any more or less

c
common over generations.
Task A Mutations and natural selection
Practice

1. Explain what a genetic variant is and what it is caused by.

2. What is the name of the process that causes advantageous genetic

variants to become more common over generations?

3. In your own words, explain why advantageous genetic variants

become more common over generations.
Task A Mutations and natural selection
Feedback

1. Explain what a genetic variant is and what it is caused by.

A genetic variant is a region of DNA in which the sequence of nucleotide

bases has been changed.
It is caused by a mutation.

2. What is the name of the process that causes advantageous genetic

variants to become more common over generations?

Natural selection.
Task A Mutations and natural selection
Feedback

3. In your own words, explain why advantageous genetic variants

become more common over generations.

● Advantageous genetic variants cause advantageous traits in the

phenotype of organisms.
● Individuals that have these advantageous traits are better adapted
to their environment.
● Due to natural selection, they are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
● Therefore, they are more likely to be the ones who pass on their
genetic variants to the next generation.
An example in plants
Check

Why do white clover plants in cities not produce hydrogen cyanide?

The white clover plants cleverly chose to adapt to their surroundings as there
a are no herbivores in cities.

Random mutations in every white clover plant in cities created genetic variants
b that caused them to not produce hydrogen cyanide.

c Hydrogen cyanide is poisonous to white clover plants.

d
Those that didn’t produce hydrogen cyanide were better adapted, so were
more likely to survive and reproduce.
Task B An example in plants
Practice

Cacti have evolved to have spines instead of leaves.

The spines are an adaptation that enable cacti to live in desert

habitats which are very dry.

Mutations in the ancestors of cacti created genetic variants

that cause spines to develop instead of leaves.

a cactus growing in
Explain why these genetic variants became common as the desert
cacti evolved over many generations.
Task B An example in plants
Feedback

Explain why these genetic variants became common as cacti evolved over
many generations.
● Plants lose water through their leaves.
● The genetic variants gave cacti the advantageous trait of having spines
instead of leaves, which reduced water loss. The spines also protected the
water-filled stems of the cacti from being eaten by animals.
● Early cacti that had the advantageous trait of spines were better adapted to
survive in the dry desert environment.
● Due to natural selection they were more likely to survive and reproduce, and
so more likely to pass on the genetic variants to the next generation. This
repeated over generations, so the genetic variants became more common in
each generation.
An example in humans
Check

What has led to lactose tolerance becoming very common in

some populations of humans?

a natural selection

b random chance

c selective breeding
Task C An example in humans
Practice

Andeep and Lucas are learning about evolution in school.

They learn that fossils show that humans with thicker and stronger face bones became
more common as the human species evolved.
They say:
Natural selection caused
stronger face bones to Natural selection caused stronger
appear in humans for the first face bones to become more
time. common in the population over
generations.

Andeep
Lucas
1. Who is correct and who is incorrect? Explain your answer.
Task C An example in humans
Feedback

Answer the questions and complete the tasks below:

1. Whose understanding is correct? Explain your answer

Andeep is incorrect.
Random mutations would have caused stronger face bones in humans to
appear for the first time.

Lucas is correct.
Natural selection causes advantageous traits (and the genetic variants that
cause them) to become more common over generations.
Task C An example in humans
Practice

Individuals with stronger face bones were more likely to survive fights and
could then reproduce, passing on their features to the next generation.

2. Describe in steps how natural selection led to stronger face bones becoming more
common as the human species evolved.
Include the following ideas in your answer:

● variation ● competition
● mutation ● survival
● genetic variant ● reproduction
● advantage ● inheritance
Valente Romero/Shutterstock
Task C An example in humans
Feedback

2. Describe in steps how natural selection led to stronger face bones

becoming more common as the human species evolved.
● The was variation among humans. Random mutations created genetic variants
that gave some individuals stronger face bones.
● Individuals with these genetic variants were better adapted to their environment
and had an advantage over those that had weaker face bones.
● Individuals with stronger face bones were more likely to survive fights and
reproduce.
● Many of their offspring inherited the advantageous genetic variants that caused
stronger face bones and eventually, over many generations, all humans had
stronger face bones.