AUTOMATIC CONTROL ENGINEERING

Chapter 2:
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF
CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEMS

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Chapter 2: MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF
CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Content of chapter 2:

2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?

2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
2.3 Signal flow graph
2.4 State space equations

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 2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?
- Practical control systems are diverse and different in nature.
- It is necessary to have a common method for analysis and design of
different type of control systems ➔ Mathematics
- The relationship between input and output of a linear - time invariant
(LTI) system of can be described by constant coefficient linear
differential equation:

n: system order, for proper systems: n ≥ m

ai, bi: parameter of system
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 2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?
Example: Car dynamics

M: mass of the car, B friction coefficient: system parameters

f(t): engine driving force: input
v(t): car speed: output
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 2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?
Example: Car suspension

M: equivalent mass, B friction constant, K spring stiffness

f(t): external force: input
y(t): travel of the car body: output
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 2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?
Example: Elevator

ML: mass of cabin and load, MB: counterbalance

B friction constant, K gear box constant
τ(t): driving moment of the motor : input
y(t): position of the cabin: output
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 2.1 What is mathematical model of a control system?
- Difficult to solve differential equation order n (n>2)

- System analysis based on differential equation model is difficult

- System design based on differential equation model is almost impossible
in general cases
- It is necessary to have another mathematical model that makes the
analysis and design of control systems easier:
- Transfer function
- State space equation

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Definition of Laplace transform:
The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t ≥ 0,
is the function F(s), defined by:

Where:
- s : complex variable (Laplace variable)
- L : Laplace operator
- F(s) : Laplace transform of f(t)
The Laplace transform exists if the integral of f(t) in the interval [0,+∞) is
convergence

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Properties of Laplace transform:
Given the function f(t) and g(t), and their respective Laplace transforms F(s)
and G(s):
ℒ{f(t)}=F(s) ℒ{g(t)}=G(s)

- Linearity ℒ{a.f(t)+b.g(t)} = a.F(s)+b.G(s)

- Time shifting ℒ{f(t-T)} = e-Ts.F(s)
𝒅𝒇(𝒕)
- Differentiation ℒ = 𝒔𝑭 𝒔 − 𝒇(𝟎+ )
𝒅𝒕
𝒕 𝑭(𝒔)
- Integration ℒ ‫= 𝝉𝒅 𝝉 𝒇 𝟎׬‬
𝒔
- Final value theorem 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝑭(𝒔)
𝒕→∞ 𝒔→𝟎

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Laplace transform of basic functions:
- Unit step function:

- Dirac function:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Laplace transform of basic functions:
- Ramp function:

- Exponential function:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Laplace transform of basic functions:
- Sinusoidal function:

- Another functions: refer to the Table of Laplace transform

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Definition of transfer function:
- Consider a system described by the differential equation:

- Taking the Laplace transform the two sides of the above equation, using
differentiation property and assuming that the initial condition are zeros,
we have:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Definition of transfer function:
- Transfer function:

- Definition: Transfer function of a system is the ratio between the

Laplace transform of the output signal and the Laplace transform of the
input assuming that initial conditions are zeros.

- Note: Although the transfer function is defined as the ratio between the
Laplace transform of the output signal and the Laplace transform of the
input signal, the transfer function does not depend on the output signal
and the input signal, but only on the structure and parameters of system.
Therefore, the transfer function can be used to describe the system.
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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Procedure to find the transfer function of a component:
- Step 1: Establishing the differential equation describing the input –
output relationship of the components by:
- Applying Kirchhoff’s law, current – voltage relationship of resistors,
capacitors, inductors, … for the electrical components.
- Applying Newton’s law, the relationship between friction and velocity, the
relationship between force and deformation of spring … for the mechanical
components.
- Applying heat transfer law, law of conversation of energy, … for the thermal
processes.
- …
- Step 2: Taking the Laplace transform of the two sides of the differential
established in step 1, we find the transfer function of the component.
- Note: For electrical circuits, the transfer function can be found by the
complex impedance method.
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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of some type of controllers:
- First order integrator:

- First differentiator:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of some type of controllers:
- Compensator:

- Phase lag compensator:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of some type of controllers:
- Proportional Controller (P):

- Proportional Integral Controller (PI):

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of some type of controllers:
- Proportional Derivative Controller (PD):

- Proportional Integral Derivative Controller (PID):

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of a car:

- Differential equation:

- Transfer function:

where

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of an suspension system:

- Differential equation:

- Transfer function:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of DC motor:
- Equivalent diagram of a DC motor:

La : armature induction ω : motor speed

Ra : armature resistance Mt : load inertia
Ua : armature voltage B : friction constant
Ea: back electromotive force J : moment of inertia of the rotor

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of DC motor:
- Applying Kirchhoff’s law for the armature circuit:
𝒅𝒊𝒂 (𝒕)
𝑼𝒂 (𝒕) = 𝒊𝒂 𝒕 . 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 + 𝑬𝒂 (𝒕) (1)
𝒅𝒕
where: 𝑬𝒂 𝒕 = 𝑲ϕ𝝎(𝒕) (2)
K : electromotive force constant
ϕ : excitation magnetic flux
- Applying Newton’s law for the rotating part of the motor:
𝒅𝝎(𝒕)
𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑴𝑳 𝒕 + 𝑩𝝎 𝒕 + 𝑱 (3)
𝒅𝒕
where: 𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑲ϕ𝒊𝒂 (𝒕) (4)

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of DC motor:
- Taking the Laplace transform of (1), (2), (3), (4) leads to:
𝑼𝒂 𝒔 = 𝑰𝒂 𝒔 . 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 𝒔𝑰𝒂 𝒔 + 𝑬𝒂 (𝒔) (5)
𝑬𝒂 𝒔 = 𝑲ϕ𝝎(𝒔) (6)
𝑴 𝒔 = 𝑴𝑳 𝒔 + 𝑩𝝎 𝒔 + 𝑱𝒔𝝎(𝒔) (7)
𝑴 𝒔 = 𝑲ϕ𝒊𝒂 (𝒔) (8)
- Denote:
𝑳𝒂
𝑻𝒂 = Electromagnetic time constant
𝑹𝒂
𝑱
𝑻𝒄 = Mechanical time constant
𝑩

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of DC motor:
- From (5) and (7), we have:
𝑼𝒂 𝒔 −𝑬𝒂 (𝒔)
𝑰𝒂 𝒔 = (5’)
𝑹𝒂 (𝟏+𝑻𝒂 𝒔)
𝑴 𝒔 −𝑴𝑳 (𝒔)
𝝎 𝒔 = (7’)
𝑩(𝟏+𝑻𝒄 𝒔)

- From (5’), (6), (7’) and (8), we can develop the block diagram of the DC
motor as follow:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of a thermal process:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of a thermal process:
- The approximate transfer function of the thermal process can be
𝒀(𝒔)
calculated by using the equation: 𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑼(𝒔)
𝟏
- The input is the unit step signal, then 𝑼 𝒔 =
𝒔
- The approximate output is: 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒇(𝒕 − 𝑻𝟏 )
where: 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑲(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕/𝑻𝟐 )
𝑲
The Laplace transform of f(t) is 𝑭 𝒔 =
𝒔(𝟏+𝑻𝟐 𝒔)
𝑲𝒆−𝑻𝟏 𝒔
Applying the time delay theorem: 𝒀 𝒔 =
𝒔(𝟏+𝑻𝟐 𝒔)

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer function of sensors:

- Feedback signal 𝑦𝑓𝑏 (𝑡) is proportional to y(t), so transfer functions of

sensors are usually constant:

- Ex: Suppose that temperature of a furnace changing in the range 𝑦 𝑡 =

0 ÷ 5000 𝐶, if a sensor converts the temperature to a voltage in the range
𝑦𝑓𝑏 (𝑡) = 0 ÷ 5𝑉, then the transfer function of the sensor is:

- If the sensor has a delay time, then the transfer function of the sensor is:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Transfer functions of control systems:
Block diagram
- Block diagram is a diagram of a system, in which the principal parts or
function are represented by blocks connected by lines, that show the
relationships of the blocks
- A block diagram composes of 3 components:
- Function block
- Summing point
- Pickoff point

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Transfer function of systems in series

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Transfer function of systems in parallel

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Transfer function of feedback systems

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Transfer function of feedback systems

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Transfer function of multi-loop systems
- For a complex system consisting of multi feedback loops, we perform
equivalent block diagram transformation so that simple connecting
blocks appears, and then we simplify the block diagram from the inner
loops to the outer loops.
- Two block diagrams are equivalent if their input-output relationship
are the same.

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Moving a pickoff point behind a block

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Moving a pickoff point ahead a block

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Moving a summing point behind a block

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Moving a summing point ahead a block

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Interchanging the positions of the two consecutive summing points

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Splitting a summing point

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Note
- Do not interchange the positions of a pickoff point and a summing point:

- Do not interchange the positions of

two summing points if there exists a
pickoff point between them:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 1: Find the equivalent transfer function of the following system:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 1:
- Find the equivalent block diagram transformation
- Redraw the block diagram after performing equivalent block diagram
transformation

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 1:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 1:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2: Find the equivalent transfer function of the following system:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:
- Find the equivalent block diagram transformation
- Redraw the block diagram after performing equivalent block diagram
transformation

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 2:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 3: Find the equivalent transfer function of the following system:

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 3:
- Find the equivalent block diagram transformation
- Redraw the block diagram after performing equivalent block diagram
transformation

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Block diagram algebra:
Example 3:
Students calculate the equivalent transfer function themselves using the
hints the previous slide.

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 2.2 Transfer function and block diagram algebra
Remarks on block diagram algebra:
- Block diagram algebra is a relatively simple method to calculate the
equivalent transfer function of a control system.
- The main disadvantage of block diagram algebra is its lack of systematic
procedure to perform the block diagram transformation; each particular
block diagram can be transformed by different heuristic ways.
- When calculating the equivalent transfer function, it is necessary to
manipulate many calculations on algebra fractions. This could be a
potential source of error if the system is complex enough.
➔Block diagram algebra is only appropriate for finding equivalent transfer
function of simple systems.
To find equivalent transfer function of complex systems, signal flow
graph method is more effective.

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