Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
CHAPTER FOUR
ELECTROMAGNETISM
4.1 Magnetic Field
Magnetism is a force field that acts on some materials but not on other materials. Physical devices which
possess this force are called magnets. Lodestone (an iron compound) is a natural magnet which was
discovered centuries ago. The magnets been used today are all manufactured. They are made from various
alloys containing elements like copper, nickel, aluminium, iron and cobalt. These magnets are stronger
than the natural lodestone magnet. A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron,
nickel or cobalt) which has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials.
The force of magnetism is referred to as a magnetic field. A permanent magnet has a magnetic field
surrounding it. A magnetic field can simply be described in terms of its effect on materials such as iron
filings. Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by imagining
the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the distribution and density
of the field to be carried out.
It is invisible but evidence of its existence can be observed when a magnet is covered with a sheet of glass
or paper and iron filings are sprinkled on the sheet. When the sheet is tapped lightly, the iron filings align
with the magnetic field as shown in figure 4.1. This field extends out from the magnet in all directions as
could be observed.
Lines of
magnetic
flux
Figure 4.1: Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet
If a number of magnets of different strength are used, it is found that the stronger the field the closer are
the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. This means where the lines of flux are dense, the magnetic field
is strong, and where the lines of flux are sparse, the field is weak. The lines of flux are most dense at the
ends of the magnet, therefore, the magnetic field is strongest at the ends of the magnet. The strength of
the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet. It should be realized, of course, that the
magnetic field is three dimensional in its effect, and not acting in one plane as appears to be the case in
this experiment.
4.2 Direction of Magnetic Field
When a bar magnet is suspended freely on a thread, it always points with one end towards the North
magnetic pole of the earth, and the other end points towards the South magnetic pole of the earth. The
end of the magnet which points towards the North pole is known as the north-seeking pole or N-pole, and
the other end is the south-seeking pole or S-pole.
The direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken as that in which the north pole points. Lines of force
(flux) are always assumed to leave the north pole (N) and enter the south pole (S). The direction of a line
of flux is from the north pole to the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to
continue through the magnet back to the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus such lines of
flux always form complete closed loops or paths; they never intersect and always have a definite direction.
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. When the
two bar magnets are suspended close to one another it is found that the N-pole of one magnet is attracted
to the S-pole of the other magnet. That is, unlike magnetic poles are attracted towards one another.
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
An investigation of the magnetic field pattern between two opposite poles yields the pattern in figure 4.2a.
Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is strongest
in between the two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close together.
It is also found that with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), the N-pole of one magnet repels the
N-pole of the other. It is the same for the S-pole, since magnetic flux lines running side by side in the
same direction repel. Hence, like magnetic poles repel one another. The flux pattern between two like
poles is shown in figure 4.2b.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.2: Magnetic field pattern between (a) unlike poles, (b) like poles
4.3 Characteristics of Lines of Magnetic Flux
The characteristics of lines of flux could be summarised as follows:
(a) Each line of magnetic flux leaves the North pole and enters the South pole.
(b) The direction of the line of magnetic flux at any point is taken as that in which the north pole
points.
(c) Like magnetic poles repel each other whilst unlike magnetic poles create a force of
attraction.
(d) The magnetic field is relatively strong where the lines of flux are dense and weak where the
lines are sparse.
(e) The lines of flux always form complete closed loops or paths; they never intersect and
always have a definite direction.
4.4 Magnetic Field due to an Electric Current
Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent magnets, but also by electric currents and the
magnetic flux produced has the same properties as the flux produced by a permanent magnet. This was
first discovered by Hans Christian Oersted in 1819. He discovered that when current is passed through a
conductor placed above a magnetic needle, the needle turns in a certain direction. When the direction of
flow of current is reversed the magnetic needle also deflects in opposite direction. This is demonstrated
in figure 4.3.
S N
A B I I I I
S N A B A B
N S
(a) No Current Flow (b) Current Flowing From A to B (c) Current Flowing From B to A
Figure 4.3: Magnetic Field Due To an Electric Current
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
More research showed that the field around the current carrying conductor consists of lines of force, which
encircles the conductor. In the above phenomena, the effect could be portrayed as shown in figure 4.4.
(b) Current flowing from observer (a) Current flowing from the card board
into the card board (figure 4.5 (b)) towards the observer (figure 4.5 (c))
Figure 4.4: Direction of Current Flow in a Conductor
This can be proved experimentally by passing a current-carrying conductor AB through a card board, on
which is placed some iron fillings (figure 4.5 (a)) and plotting the field with the help of a magnetic needle
or compass.
When the cardboard is gently tapped, the iron filings will form a circular field pattern around the
conductor. When the current is passed through the conductor in the downward direction, the direction of
lines of force is clockwise when observed from the top but when the current is passed through the
conductor in the upward direction, the direction of lines of force is anti-clockwise as observed in figures
4.5 (b) and 4.5 (c).
A
. . .
.. . . . . .
B
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.5: Magnetic Field around A Current Carrying Conductor
The effect on both the iron filings and the magnetic needle disappears when the current is switched off.
The magnetic field is thus produced by the electric current. The strength of the field increases or decreases
with the increase or decrease of current.
In summary, the properties of the lines of magnetic induction around a current-carrying conductor are:
(a) Lines of magnetic induction are circles, symmetrical about, and concentric with, the axis of the
conductor.
(b) The spacing between the lines of induction decreases as we move closer to the conductor.
(c) The direction of lines of magnetic induction depends on the direction of flow of current through
the conductor.
(d) Magnetic induction or flux density depends upon the strength or magnitude of the current
flowing through the conductor
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
In Figure 4.5, the effect of only a small part of the magnetic field is shown. If the whole length of the
conductor is similarly investigated it is found that the magnetic field around a straight conductor is in the
form of concentric cylinders as shown in Figure 4.6, the field direction depending on the direction of the
current flow.
Downward flow
of Current Current flow
Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction
of lines of flux of lines of flux
Figure 4.6: Magnetic flux around a current-carrying conductor
4.5 Determination of Direction of Magnetic Field Around A Current Carrying Conductor
The direction of lines of force (magnetic field) around a straight current carrying conductor may be
determined by any of the following rules:
1. Cork Screw Rule: If the right handed cork screw is held with its axis parallel to the conductor
pointing in the direction of flow of current and the head of screw is rotated in such a direction
that the screw moves in the direction of flow of current then the direction in which the head of
screw is rotated, will be the direction of magnetic lines of force.
2. Right Hand Rule: If the current carrying conductor is held in right hand by the observer so that
it is encircled by fingers stretching the thumb at right angle to the fingers in the direction of flow
of current then finger tips will point the direction of magnetic lines of force.
4.6 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
A solenoid is a current carrying wire wound spirally in the form of helix about an axis.
Figure 4.7: Solenoid
A magnetic field set up by a solenoid, is shown in Figure 4.7. The Magnetic field produced due to the
current-carrying solenoid is fairly uniform over a small region in the middle of the coil. It acts just like a
bar magnet having north and south poles.
If the solenoid is wound on an iron bar, as shown in Figure 4.8, an even stronger magnetic field is
produced, the iron becoming magnetized and behaving like a permanent magnet.
There are several methods used to determine the polarity of the solenoid.
1. By Use of Compass Needle: If one the poles (say north pole) of the compass needle be brought
into close proximity to one of the poles of the current carrying solenoid of unknown polarity the
action of the compass needle will immediately classify the pole as north or south depending upon
whether the needle is repelled or attracted.
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
N S
Figure 4.8: Magnetic field due to a Solenoid
2. Helix Rule: If the helix is held in right hand in such a manner that the finger tips point in the
direction of flow of current and thumb is outstretched longitudinally along the coil, it will point
towards north pole.
If the solenoid is wound on an iron bar, as shown in Figure 4.8, an even stronger magnetic field is
produced, the iron becoming magnetised and behaving like a permanent magnet.
4.7 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
4.7.1 Magnetic Flux
This is the group of lines going from the North pole to the South pole of a magnet. The number of lines
of force in a magnetic field determines the value of the flux. The more lines of force, the greater the flux,
and the stronger the magnetic field.
Symbol: ∅
Unit: Weber (Wb)
The weber is a very large unit, thus, in most practical situations, the microweber (𝜇𝑊𝑏)is used.
4.7.2 Magnetic Flux Density
This is the amount of flux per unit area perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Symbol: 𝐵
Unit: Tesla (T)
One Tesla equals one weber per square metre (𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 ).
∅
Thus, 𝐵 =
𝐴
∅ = flux
A = cross-sectional area (𝑚2 ) of the magnetic field.
Example 4.1
Find the flux density in a magnetic field in which the flux in 0.1 𝑚2 is 800 𝜇𝑊𝑏.
Solution 4.1
∅ 800
𝐵= = = 8000 𝜇𝑇
𝐴 0.1
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
Example 4.2
If the flux density in a certain material is 2.3 𝑇 and the area of the material is 0.38 𝑖𝑛2 , what is the flux
through the material?
Solution 4.2
NB: 0.38 𝑖𝑛2 must be converted to square metres.
39.37 𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑚
1 𝑚2
Thus 𝐴 = 0.38 𝑖𝑛2 [(39.37)2 ] = 245.16 × 10−6 𝑚2
The flux through the material is
∅ = 𝐵𝐴 = 2.3 × 245.16 × 10−6
= 564 𝜇𝑊𝑏
4.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
Figure 4.9 (a) depicts a uniform magnetic field between the opposite poles.
N S ×
(a) (b)
Force
×
°
N S N S
Force
(c) (d)
Figure 4.9: Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor Lying in the Magnetic Field
Figure 4.9 (b) shows a cross-section of a conductor carrying current in inward direction. It is placed
between the two magnets whilst the field has been removed temporarily. The clockwise direction of the
magnetic field was determined by the application of the right-hand rule.
If the conductor in (b) is placed in the magnetic field shown in (a), the resultant magnetic field would be
similar to that shown in Figure 4.9 (c). The lines of force above the conductor are strengthened, since they
are in the same direction but the lines of force below the conductor are weakened because the two fields
below the conductor are opposite in directions, and hence tends to destroy each other.
Magnetic lines have the tendency to strengthen out, and therefore a force is exerted on the conductor in
the downward direction as observed in Figure 4.9 (c).
If the direction of current is reversed in the conductor, as observed in Figure 4.9 (d), the direction of the
force experienced is reversed. In this case, the lines of force above the conductor are weakened whiles
those below the conductor are strengthened.
It can thus be concluded that when a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to the direction
of magnetic field, a mechanical force is exerted on the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the
direction of magnetic field and flow of current.
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
The direction of this force can be determined by applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule which states that: if
the thumb, forefinger and second of the left hand are stretched in such a way that they are at right angles
to each other, and the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, second finger in the direction
of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on the conductor (Figure 4.10).
Figure 4.10: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
If the current in the conductor is reversed, keeping the direction of magnetic field unchanged, the direction
of force will reverse. Similarly, if the direction of the magnetic field is reversed, keeping the direction of
flow of current in the conductor unchanged, the direction of force will reverse.
Summarising:
First finger – Field
SeCond finger – Current
ThuMb – Motion
Note: No force is exerted on a conductor when it lies parallel to the magnetic field.
Another method for finding the direction of force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field is the Flat left hand rule.
If the palm of the left hand is so placed that the lines of induction leaving the N-pole enter the palm and
the four fingers are pointing to the direction of flow of current in the conductor, then the thumb will
indicate the direction of force acting on the conductor.
The force experienced on the conductor is directly proportional to
(1) Flux density, B
(2) The current flowing through the conductor, I and
(3) The length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, 𝑙.
Thus the magnitude of the force, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙
Where, F is in newtons, B is in teslas (𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 ), I is in amperes and 𝑙 is in metres.
In general if the conductor and the magnetic field are at an angle 𝜃 to each other, then the force exerted
on the current-carrying conductor is given by
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 sin 𝜃 newtons
Example 4.3
A wire 100 mm in length carries a current of 10 A and makes an angle of 30° with a uniform magnetic
field having a flux density of 1.5 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 . Calculate the magnitude of the force on the wire.
Solution 4.3
Force on the wire, F is given by
|𝐹| = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 1.5 × 10 × 0.1 sin 30
= 0.75 𝑁
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
Example 4.4
A conductor carries a current of 8 𝐴 and is at right angles to a magnetic field lying between two circular
pole faces each of radius 40 𝑚𝑚. If the total flux between the pole faces is 0.05 𝑚𝑊𝑏 and the magnitude
of the force exerted on the conductor is 0.25 𝑁;
Calculate:
(i) the magnetic flux density
(ii) the length of the conductor
Solution 4.4
𝐼 = 8 𝐴; 𝑟 = 40 𝑚𝑚 = 0.04 𝑚; ∅ = 0.05 𝑚𝑊𝑏; 𝐹 = 0.25 𝑁
(i) Area of circular pole, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 × 0.042
= 0.005 𝑚2
∅ 0.05
But 𝐵= = = 10 𝑇
𝐴 0.005
(ii) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃 but 𝜃 = 900
𝐹 0.25
Or 𝑙 = =
𝐵𝐼 10×8
= 3.125 𝑚𝑚
4.7 Force on a Charge
A moving charge in a magnetic field will experience a magnetic force, F given by
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 newtons
Where 𝑞 is the charge in coulombs
𝑣 is the velocity of the moving charge in m/s
and 𝐵 is the flux density in 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 (𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 )
The direction of the force will be perpendicular to the plane determined between 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.
Generally, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
Example 4.5
An electron in a television tube has a charge of 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs and travels at 3 × 107 m/s
perpendicular to a field of flux density 18.5 μT. Determine the force exerted on the electron in the field.
Solution 4.5
From above, force,
F = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
where:
q = charge in coulombs = 1.6 × 10–19 C
v = velocity of charge = 3 × 107 m/s and
B = flux density = 18.5 × 10–6 T
Hence force on electron, 𝐹 = 1.6 × 10−19 × 3 × 107 × 18.5 × 10−6
= 8.88 × 10−17 𝑁
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
4.8 Electromagnetic Induction
A very important effect of a magnetic field on an electric circuit is that when the flux linking the circuit
changes, an emf is induced.
Thus an emf is produced in a conductor, when this conductor is moved across a magnetic field in order
to cut through the lines of force (flux). This emf can cause current to flow if the conductor forms part of
a closed circuit. This effect is known as Electromagnetic Induction, since the emf (and by extension the
current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor due to the movement across the magnetic field.
Figure 4.11: A Coil of wire connected to a Centre-zero Galvanometer
Figure 4.11(a) shows a coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a sensitive ammeter
with the zero-current position in the centre of the scale.
(a) When the magnet is moved at constant speed towards the coil (Figure 4.11(a)), a deflection is
noted on the galvanometer showing that a current has been produced in the coil.
(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as in (a) but away from the coil the same deflection
is noted but is in the opposite direction (see Figure 4.11(b))
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within the coil, no deflection is recorded.
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as in (a) and the magnet held stationary the same
galvanometer deflection is noted.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the galvanometer deflection is doubled.
(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater galvanometer deflection is noted.
(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is increased, a greater galvanometer deflection is
noted.
Figure 4.11(c) shows the magnetic field associated with the magnet. As the magnet is moved towards the
coil, the magnetic flux of the magnet moves across, or cuts, the coil. It is the relative movement of the
magnetic flux and the coil that causes an emf and thus current, to be induced in the coil. This effect is
known as electromagnetic induction.
4.9 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction of emf (or voltage) is basic to the operation of transformers, generators (ac or
dc) and motors (ac or dc). The effect is described by Faraday’s Laws.
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:
(a) “An induced emf is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit changes.”
(b) “The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.”
𝑑∅
i.e. 𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
where 𝑁 is the product of number of turns and rate of change of flux linkage
𝑑𝑡
The direction of induced emf is governed by Lenz’s law.
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
Lenz’s law states that:
“The direction of induced emf is such that the current produced by it, sets up a magnetic field opposing
the change of flux.”
A minus (-) sign is required to be placed before the right hand side quantity in the equation above in order
to indicate the phenomenon explained by Len’s Law. Thus the expression for the induced emf becomes
𝑑∅
𝑒 = −𝑁 volts
𝑑𝑡
Where ∅ is in webers and time, t is in seconds
The induced emf appears in any circuit which may be linked by the changing flux, and also current in a
circuit produces a magnetic field linking the circuit and penetrating through the medium around it.
Growth, decay or any other change of current with time causes corresponding changes of the magnetic
flux and induces an emf in the circuit.
Example 4.6
If the flux set up in a coil of 1000 turns, changes from 0.1 𝑚𝑊𝑏 𝑡𝑜 1.3 𝑚𝑊𝑏 in 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠, find the
voltage induced in it.
Solution 4.6
Flux change, 𝑑∅ = 1.3 − 0.1 = 1.2 𝑚𝑊𝑏
= 0.0012 𝑊𝑏 in 0.5 secs
𝑑∅ 0.0012
Rate of flux change = = 0.006 𝑊𝑏/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 0.5
𝑑∅
Induced voltage or emf, 𝑒 = 𝑁 = 1000 × 0.006 =6𝑉
𝑑𝑡
4.10 Induced Emf, E
As it was noted earlier, when the flux linking a coil or circuit changes, an emf is induced in the coil or
circuit. The emf can be induced by changing the flux linkage in two major ways:
(a) By increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the current producing the flux. In this case, there is
no motion of the conductor or of the coil relative to the field. The emf induced in this way is
known as statically induced emf.
(b) By moving a conductor in a uniform magnetic field. The emf produced in this way is known as
dynamically induced emf.
Consider a conductor of length, 𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 placed in a uniform magnetic field of density, 𝐵 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 as seen
in figure 4.12(a).
B 𝜃
B
B 𝑣 B
𝑣
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4.12: A Dynamically Induced emf
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
If this conductor is moved with a velocity, 𝑣 𝑚/𝑠 in a direction perpendicular to its own length and at an
angle 𝜃 to the direction of magnetic field (figure 4.12 (b)), then the induced emf, e set up is given by
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 𝜃 volts
If this conductor is moved with a velocity 𝑣 m/s in a direction perpendicular to its own length and
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in figure 4.12 (c), flux is cut by the
conductor, therefore, an emf is induced in the conductor. Thus the induced emf, 𝑒 is given by
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 90 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 volts
Finally, if this conductor still with a velocity, 𝑣 m/s moves in the direction of the field (figure 4.12 (d)),
the induced emf, 𝑒 will be
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 0 = 0 volts.
This is because no flux is cut by the conductor, hence no emf is induced in it.
The direction of this induced emf is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule).
Figure 4.13: Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
The rule states that:
“If the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand are held mutually perpendicular to each
other as shown in Figure 4.13, the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb
pointing in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced emf.”
Summarising:
First finger: - Field
ThuMb: - Motion
SEcond finger: - Emf
In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made to move through a magnetic field. By
Faraday’s law an emf is induced in the conductors and thus a source of emf is created.
Note: A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
PROBLEMS
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Applied Electricity Chapter four – Electromagnetism
Force On A Current-Carrying Conductor
1. A conductor carries a current of 70 A at right-angles to a magnetic field having a flux density of 1.5
T. If the length of the conductor in the field is 200 mm calculate the force acting on the conductor.
What is the force when the conductor and field are at an angle of 45°?
[21.0 N, 14.8 N]
2. Calculate the current required in a 240 mm length of conductor of a dc motor when the conductor is
situated at right-angles to the magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T, if a force of 1.20 N is to be exerted
on the conductor. [4.0 A]
3. A conductor 30 cm long is situated at right-angles to a magnetic field. Calculate the strength of the
magnetic field if a current of 15 A in the conductor produces a force on it of 3.6 N.
[0.80 T]
4. A conductor 300 mm long carries a current of 13 A and is at right- angles to a magnetic field between
two circular pole faces, each of diameter 80 mm. If the total flux between the pole faces is 0.75 mWb
calculate the force exerted on the conductor. [0.582 N]
5. (a) A 400 mm length of conductor carrying a current of 25 A is situated at right-angles to a magnetic
field between two poles of an electric motor. The poles have a circular cross-section. If the force
exerted on the conductor is 80 N and the total flux between the pole faces is 1.27 mWb, determine the
diameter of a pole face. (b) If the conductor in part (a) is vertical, the current
flowing downwards and the direction of the magnetic field is from left to right, what is the direction
of the 80 N force? [(a) 14.2 mm (b) towards the viewer]
6. A coil is wound uniformly on a former having a width of 18 mm and a length of 25 mm. The former
is pivoted about an axis passing through the middle of the two shorter sides and is placed in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 0.75 T, the axis being perpendicular to the field. If the coil carries a
current of 120 mA, determine the force exerted on each coil side, (a) for a single-turn coil, (b) for a
coil wound with 400 turns. [(a) 2.25 × 10–
3
N (b) 0.9 N]
FORCE ON A CHARGE
7. Calculate the force exerted on a charge of 2 × 10–18 C travelling at 2 × 106 m/s perpendicular to a field
of density 2 × 10–7 T. [8 × 10–19 N]
8. Determine the speed of a 10–19 C charge travelling perpendicular to a field of flux density 10–7 T, if
the force on the charge is 10–20 N. [106 m/s]
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