Chapter

1 Vector Analysis

[Link]

Gibbs used vector notation inElectromagnetism. With this notation,the

subject look elegant and concise. A vector is a directed line segment in space

representingsome physicalquantity. A vector can exist independent of any

coordinate system. A vector is the best object todescribe certain physical
quantities., The vectors obey vectors laws. The direction and magnitude of
physical quantitiesis known with the help of vectors.

Scalars :The physicalquantities that have magnitude and no direction

are called as scalars.

Examples
distance etc.
:Time, temperature, pressure, density, current,'potential,

Vectors: The physical quantities that have magnitude and direction are
as vectors.
called

Examples :Displacenment, velocity acceleration, torque, momentum,

amplitude ete.
Graphical Representation of
vector A.
a Vector :O is

A is head, terminus. A vectoris representedby a bar or arrow

the tail or origin of a

on A.
Head or Terminus

Origin or tail
OA
Fig. 1

1.2. Scalar and Vector Fields

Scalar Field :Ifa scalarphysicalquantity is attributed to each point in

space,we have scalar field in that region of space. The scalar field in three
dimensions is represented by (a,y,2). There are a no. of surfaceson which
the quantity has constant [Link] surfaceare
tq
called as level surfaces.

Examples:
1. Temperature distribution in a solid block of
material.
Voro, Yo Z0)
[Link].
3. Magnetic and electric potentials. Fig. 1
 Mechanics and Propertiesof Matter

The electric potential depends on the position of the point from the point
charge +q [Fig. 1].

V (o,Y0: 20) and V («1,Y1, 2j) are scalar point functions at the
positions Po and
level surfaces.
.A scalarfield has no. of [Link] surfacesare called

Vector Field :If a vector physicalquantity is attributedto each point in

space,we have a vector field in that region of space.
The vector field is represented by A(x, y, z). The examples vector field

of
are
1. Gravitational field

2. Magnetic field
3. Electric field
The vector field is represented by curved lines. The +m
curved lines are called as flux lines or lines of flow. 0
When the lines are each other, the vector
parallel to
field is called as stationaryvector field.
The magnetic
lines of force passing through unit area of a
surface is
called as magnetic flux. The magnetic flux decreases as

increases. The magnetic field is shown figure 2. Fig. 2

1.3. Gradient of a Scalar Field
Let o(x, y, 2)be a scalar functionof position. The partial derivatives of ¢
are

and
Oz
The gradient of scalarfunction is

grad =0i

ôy

We know that 7++gl Oy

+J
Oy Ox

V is the gradientof the scalar field.

The relationship between E and V is
where E =Electric intensity and V =
written as E= grad V; -
electric potential
Suppose S(x,y, z)is a scalar point function.

grad S i
Ox

grad S = vs
where v70+jo+e
Vector Analysis 3
Significance of Gradient of Scalar field Let : S is a scalar point
function. The gradient of a scalar field is written as

grad S =CS
where n =unit normal vector.
The gradient of a scalar field Sis a vector whose magnitude is equal to the
S
maximum rate of increase of at the [Link] direction is along the normal
to the level surface.

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field. When a vector feld is

as a gradient of a scalar field, the lineintegral ofthe vector taken
expressible
between anytwo points is independent ofthe path [Link] line integral
around any closed path in such a vector field is zero.
The vector fields are obtained from the gradient of a scalar field. Such
vector fields are called as lamellar fields.
 1.5. Divergence of a Vector Field
The divergence of a vector field
at any point is defined as the amount
of
flux per unit
area diverging from that point. The
divergence is a scalar
quantity.

Let Á isa vector point function. The divergence of A is written

+. Oz íAx + jAy + kAz)

ôy
OAx +ÔAy +
oy
VectofAnalysis
5
/1.6. Derivation For the Divergence of a Vector Field

Bx 1B dx M Bx+0Bx Jy

2 Ox Bz,0 Br dy R
2 Ox
X

dx
S
Fig.4

Consider a rectangular parallelopiped in vector field as shown in Fig. 4.

The lengths of the sides of the parallelopiped are dx, dy and dz respectively.
Let B indicates thevelocity of a fluid atO. Bx, By and Bz
be the components of
velocity offluid along thethree coordinateaxes
OBx
respectively. indicatesthe

OBy
rate of change ofBx and X-axis. indicates the rate of change ofBy along
oy
OBz
Y-axis. indicates the rate of change of Bz along Z-axis.

The value of Bx at the center of face PQRS M

=Value Bx at the center O + increase in magnitude from O
of
to M
=Value of Bx at the center +rate of change with distancex distance
dx
=Bx + OBx ...(1)
2
In a same way, themagnitude of Bx at the center N offace EFGH
OBx dx
=Bx .(2)

1Be
Flux enteringthe face EFGH = Bx -
2 Ox de ldy de
dy dz =area of EFGH ..(3)
OBx
Flux leaving the face PQRS = Bx +
1

dx
2 Ox
The net flux leaving the paralleopiped in X-directionis
Bx + 1 OBx 1 OBx
Bx dx
2 Ox 2 Ox
OBx
dx dydz ...(4)

The net flux leaving the parallelopiped in Y and Z directions are

OBy
dx dy dz:B2 dx dydz ..(5)
Oy
 6 Mechanicsand
Properties

Totalflux leaving or diverging from parallelopiped

Bxdxdydz + OBy dxdydz OBz
ôx -dxdydz

- OBx JBy ÖBz dxdy dz

Ox

dx dy dz isthe volume of theelementary parallelopiped. The

flux diverging per unit volume amount

OBx OBy OBz

Ôx oy

dnte B OBx OBy OBz

diy
ôx z
oihat div B -Ë
This is the equation divergence of a vector field.
Significance of Divergence:The divergence ofa
vectorfieldis that at.s
point it givesthe amount of flux per
unit volume diverging from that point
[Link] the velocity of a fluid. Div
indicates
V indicatesthe rate of flow df

fluid at that point per unit volume.

2. The divergence of
current density J indicates the amount of charg
flowingout per unit volume per second.

3.V-B in magnetism indicates that the magnetic flux is a closed I

T.BL0, then B is a solenoidal

vector.

y1.7. Curl of a Vector Field

The curl of a vector field is defined as the
maximum line integral of t
vector per unit area. It is a vector
quantity. The direction is normal to te
area,

IrAis a vector point function,

curl of A is

curl A -vA-
Ox iy oz

Ax Ay Az

This is theequation of curlA.

Significance of a
Curl: The meaning curl is rotation. Consider
of

frictionless paddle is are

placed in the path
of liquid flow. If all liquid layers
moving with the same
velocity, the paddle will indicates
thatthecurl not be rotated. This
of
velocity is [Link] theliquid layers are with
different
moving
Vector Analysis
7

velocities, the paddle will be rotated asshown below (figure 5). The rotation is

due to non zero value of the curl of velocity vector.

Fig. 5
Examples :
1. Ifarigid body is in motion, the curl of its linear velocity at any point
gives twice its angular velocity.

curl V =26

[Link]= that is curl of electric field intensity vector is equal to the

rate of change of magnetic field vector.

[Link] xB the curlof magnetic field vectoris equal to rate ofchange

of current density.

4fv x =0,The forceis conservativeforce. The work donein this field

arfund aclosed path is zero.

1.8. Derivation for Curl of a Vector Field

Consider a vector Á at the point P. The

vector has three components Ax, Ay and Az A Ay

along X,Y, Z axes respectively. Consider a

small rectangle abcd in x, y plae [Fig. 6]. Ax
Letôx and oy arethe sides of rectangle. The
normal drawn to the rectangle is axis. Z
The value of Ax along the side ab is
OAx oy
Ax ...1) Fig. 6

Line integral

Ay long bc is
oy

for
2

theside abis [
OAy Ox
A dl =| Ax
OAx ©y
...(2)

Ay + ...(3)
2

Line integral along be is ( Å dd-(Ay-Ay dx ly

Ox 2
...(4)
 Mechanics and Properties of Matter

Ax for the sideCD is Ar +

2 .5)
Line integral value along the side CD is

...(6)
t
x
A,forthe side dais Ay -CAy ..(7)
2
Line integral for the path da is

The total line integral

[d= Ay -CAy
yalue for the path abcd
2 y
is
.(8)

CAx Ay x
y a-Ay+
2 2

-Ax
Ax +
y -Av
2
Ay x

Ay Ax

Jabcd Ay GAx
xy ...(10)

This value is equal to the Zcomponent of curl A. The unit vector along this
direction is k.

(VxÁ), =zcomponent of curl Á= CAy Ax

(VxÁ),= y component of curl Á =|

CA

(VxÁ),=xcomponent of curl Á =|
OAz Ay

curl = OAz OAy OAx AZ OAy CAN

y

curl
|Cx
oy ôz
Ax Ay Az
This is the equation for curl ofvector
field Á.
Veçor Analysis 9
[Link] of Vectors

In vector analysis,the integralsare of three [Link] are:

1. Line integral

2. Surface integral

3. Volume integral

1. Line Integral: The integration of a curve is

called its line integral.
-B
AB is a curve in a vector field.
Pdl
Let dl be an infinitesimal element making an 4
Fig.7
angle ofe with the vector v.

( cos0)dl is the line integral value.

di - (
JA Tvx +7uy + vzdx +jdy + kdz)

(ux dx + vy dy +vz dz)

Examples :

1. The work done by a force F on a particle moving along the path AB is

2. The potential difference between two points in an electric field is

"É[Link] also indicatesthe work done on a charged particle.

3. If4F. dl =0,the vector field F is known as conservativeffeld.

Surface Integral :Consider a surface 'S" in a vector feld.
Let dS be an infinitesimal [Link] the Fig. 8.

Á-n =A cOs0

Flux from the surface element ds -Å-nds

Total flux coming out of entire surfaceS is dS S

[I,A-nds-[[, (Acos0)ds
Fig. 8
Examples:
1. Let A is thevelocity vector of a moving fluid. The

surface S is drawn in the fluid. Now ([. A-n dsindicates theamount of luid

flowing per unit time normally to the surface.

 Mechanics and Properties ofMatter
10

flows out side the closed

The surface integralis positive when the fluid
the fluid flows into the closed
surface. The surfaceintegral is negative when
surface.

2. | E. d is the total flux

In
coming out

vector field, the volume

of a surfaceS.

integral over a volume is

Volume Integral: a

written as [| A dV.
In the cartesiancoordinates

I,Adx dy dz=(| ,CAr +j Ay +k Az) dr dy dz

i Azds dy dz +[| Az dx dy dz +[[ Ar dxdy dz

1.10. Stoke's Theorem

Statement: The line integral of a vector field A around a closed curve is

of A taken over the surface S

equal to the surface integral of the
curl

surrounded by the closed curve

Bkg to A-dl =[[ eurlá-dš =[[,(TxAd

Proof : Consider a surface S in a vector field A. The boundary of the

curve PQR. The line integral of A around PQR is

surfaceis a closed

RA curl A

-di

(b) (c)
(a)

Fig. 9

...(1)

Now the whole surfaceis divided into a large no. of square loops. The area

enclosed by each infinitesimally small loop is dS. Letnis a unit positive

normal on [Link] vectorarea of the element is

...(2)

The line integral ofÁ around the boundary of the area ds is

curl A dš
Vector Analysisbnoke 11

The sum ofline integralsof à around the boundaries of all area elements
is

SI, eurlddš ...(3)

From the Fig. 9(c), it is evident that the along the common
line integrals
sides of the continuous elements mutually cancel. The sides of the element
which be in the periphery of the surface contributeto the line integral. The
sum of the line integrals on the boundary line of the curve is indicated by
equation (3). This is also indicated by equation (1)

...(3)

Thus the stokes'theorem is proved.

Using thistheorem, thesurfaceintegrals areconvented into line integrals
and vie [Link] curl is zero,the vector field A is conservative.

1.11. Gauss's Theorem of Divergence

Statement: It states that the surfaceintegral of the normal component of
a vectorÁtaken over a closed surface Sis equal to the volume'integral of the

divergence ofvector A over thevolume V enclosed by the surfaceS.

Proof:
Vis the volume enclosedby a closed surface S
as shown below in figure 10.
The surfaceis divided into [Link] elemernts. Consider one of the elements with

sides dx, dy and dz. The value of the vector A along X-axir on the left faceof
the element is Ax. The area ofthe face for this element is dydz.
Y

ldz

dy dx
(x,y, 2) (r + dx, y, z)

Fig. 10

The flux entering into the face = Axdydz ...(1)

The value of vector along the X-axis on the right face of the element is
OAx
Ax + -dx ...(2)
Ox
12 Mechanics and Propertiesof Matter

The flux coming out of the right face is

Ax A ds dy dz
ôx

The net flux along X-axis is

Ax
Ax + dx dy dz -Ax dy dz

JAx dxdydz ...3)

The net flux along Y-axis is

Ay dx dydz ...(4)

The net flux along Z-axis is

OAz
dxdy dz ...5)

The total lux coming out of elementdz dy dz isosih

OAx Ay Az

z
dsdy dz
Total flux coming out of entire volume is

Ax GAy Az
dzdy dz ...(6)

iy

The flux coming out of S in a volume V is

dt...7)

Using Gauss's divergence theorem, and from equations (6) and (7), one
can obtain

OAx Ay 0Az
ôz
|dxdy dz
iy

Therefore the theorem is proved.

1.12. Green's Theorem

Statement; Ife and y aretwo scalarfunctionswhich are continuous and

[Link] first identity of Greens' theorem is

The second indentity of Greens' theorem is

Proof : Using Gauss's divergencetheorem,

Vector Analysis 13

Let Å =¢vy ...1)

7Ar+ }Ay +kAz 7N+jM+ ...(2)

From equation (2), one can obtain

-6V
Ax =¢ Ay = Az =
y
-,
.-Ax + Ay, AZ
oy

A- Ox Öy Oy

+ + +
y oy

2
Oy oy

.Å-¢vy + Vo-Vy. ...(3)

Substitutingthis value in Gauss's divergence theorem one can obtain,

...(4)

This is the first identity of Green's theorem.

By interchanging and y in equation (4), one can obtain

This is the Greens' second identity.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
1. IfÅ = 2az i-yz i +3xz k, findv xÁ at point (1, 1,1).

Solution:
Oy 0z
-yz 3xz

V.A--;42-(
+
-ye)- 2x22
14 Mechanics and Properties of Matter

-70+y)+ j4re-32)+0 -0)

-yis(4xz -32)7
At point (1, 1, 1), TxA-7+j
2 IfF-7x +jy +ks, prove that -0
Solution: x= Cx @y cz
x y z
Cy ôx
--+-)- ôy ôz

-70)+7o) +0
xr0
[Link]Å-0,find thevalue of v-(x T).

Solution: Using vector identity

AB)-B.(7A) -X.(xB)
Let B =rthen
T-(xr)=7.(xÅ-(Tx)
Since Vx =0and xr=0
FAx )=0
[Link] that curl grad ¢ =0
Solution: grado 7+ 7@ '+
ôx

16)- (1 ()-
(]
Vector Analysis

xoy yox

[Link] Stokes'theorem, prove that eurl grad 4 -0

Solution :The stokes'theorem iswrittenas

Let Å =grad

f,grado-di -((, curl grad 4-ndS

iy

= d)

curl grad n dS =0
curl grad =0
6. Use the divergence theorem, show that
SFnds
12
5 T,where S is the surface of sphere of radius r

and F =ix+jy + kz3

Solution :From Gauss's divergence theorem

-[,362y'zdv
In spherical polar coordinates dV urdr sin0 do d).
The limits of9 varies from 0 to n and limits of varies from 0 to 2
 16 Mechanics and
Properties of
Matte

-C3r", ir sin 6cdo dy

sin0d0d4 =4n
12x
5
12 „5
5
7. Using Greens' theorem, obtain
Gauss's divergence theorem?
Solution:The Greens'theorem is

Choose as constant,one can obtain

,vvdV 4, [Link]

Put Vy
,
=Á, one can get
[Link]) dV -[[,[Link]

,div Ä dV - ((A.š
Thus the theorem is proved.

8. If Å = 2xz 7 -yzf+3xz3 k, find V. at (1,1, 1).

Solution :V.A-|7+7 |(2x227-yzj +3rz *)

Ox y Oz

(2x22) + Cy2)+3xz3)
Oy

=22 +z +9x22
(v.Å) at (1,1, 1) =2.12 +1 +9.1.12
-2+1+9-12
9. Calculate the line integral of function F=4xit 3y jbetween
the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) in X-Y plane.
Solution: Thelineintegral is written as

Fis confined to X-Y plane,F, =0

Vector Analysis 17

Èà- Ex da + Eydy)

-(4 (4xdx +3ydy)

-(4**1, +13yl,
=4-1+3-1=7
10. Calculate |rndSwhere S is a closed surface.

Solution :
Using Gauss's divergence theorem,

-dS-([,divrdV
-I7++7s7+yJ+k)
y

-3(|[, av
=3V
11. Prove that |scurl [Link] =0for any closed surface.
Solution: ji, curl F-dš -|[vcurl F)dV

-||, div eurl FdV

=0 .diveurlF
12. = ax +jby + kcz, where a, b, c are constants, show that
If F i

Fnds - 4 Tnla +b+c), whereSis the surfacearea of unitsphere.

Solution: Using Gauss's divergence theorem,

S F)ds -(|, div FdV,

where V is the volume enclosed by S.

-[S,(aw)+oy)+
-i,atb+cidV -la+b +j[,dv
18 Mechanics and
Properties of 1
4 4
=(a +b+ c)n=a
3 3 +b+c)
Matta

13. If = i34+75y +k xyz', find div A at (1,2,3).

Solution:

div A-.A-|7+7+ |i3r? +J5y2 +kse3,

(3x2) + (6xy2) + -(ryz2)

=6x +10xy + 2xyz

=6xl+10×1x2 +2x1×2x3
=6 +20 +12D
=38
14. Find curl , whereA = 2* i+[Link] the motion irrational?

Solution : curl A -x-|7+7+& |x(2x 7+2yj)

j0_

2x 02y 0

-20-.00-
01+ =0
J0]+ ]

15. If S isany closed surface enclosing a volume V, show that

(.(3*7+ 5y7+7zk)- ds =15V

Solution : | (3x i+5y7+7z) ds
-[[L, div(3&r7+5yj +7e )dv
-JJI,3e)
Ox + 16)+(2aav
ôy

-|||(3+5+7) dV
-15[[[dv
=15V