1.

4 challenges of the articles of confederation

articles of confederation, formerly known as the articles of confederation and

perpetual union
-took 5 drafts until delegates agreed on a 6th one and sent it to states in 1777
-took until 1781 for all states to ratify the AoC
"But the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered. It is
neither fit for war nor peace. The idea of an uncontrollable sovereignty in each
state over its internal police [militia] will defeat the other powers given to
Congress and make our union feeble and precarious." -Alexander Hamilton 1780
-Each state wrote its own constitution, many of which were pointedly in response to
the injustices the colonists had experienced under British rule. The state
constitutions shared other features aswell: they provided for different branches of
government,theyprotected individual irecdonıs,and they affirmed that the ruling
power came from the people.
-a "firm league of friendship" among the states, delegating a few powers to the
national gov
-The Confederation Congress met in New York. States appointeddelegations of up to
seven men who voted as a unit. National legislation required the votes of at least
nine states. A unanimous vote was required to alter or amendthe Articles of
Confederation themselves or to alter the format of [Link] Articles entitled
the Congress to engage in international diplomacy, declare war, and acquire
territory. They provided protection of religion and speech. They provided for
extradition--the return of criminal fugitives andrunaway slaves back to states they
had fled. The Articles encouraged a free flow of commerce among the states. They
required that states provide a public, fair government and that Congress could sit
as a court in disputes between states.
-focus on states was a compromise between wanting a regulated economy but not
wanting intense government control like with the british
-weaknesses in: requirement for nine states to agree to enact a national law, all
states must agree to amend government system. congress can't tax people directly,
the federal gov couldnt raise or maintain an army, no national court or currency,
congress couldnt regulate commerce between states
-Without taxes, the new government couldn't payforeign creditors and lost foreign
nations faith and potential loans.
-shays rebellion: bunch of farmers couldnt pay high state taxes, organized,
disrupted government, demanded the gov to ease financial pressures. local
government had trouble raising a counterforce and this was an example of an issue
with how fragmented the nation was
-by 1787 most americans viewed the AoC as insiffucient to run the country

1.5 ratification of the u.s. constitution

"Only twelve of over ninety American newspapers and magazines published... essays
critical of the Constitution during the ratification controversy." -Pauline Maier,
modern historian
-constitutional convention had 55 delegates and a lottt of compromises due to lack
of common ground due to varying interests
-the constitution is a "bundle of compromises"
-differing views onslavery, the nature of the executive, and the relationship of
the states to the national government
-summer of 1787 debates led to compromises
-virginia plan called for 3 branch federal government where instead of a
legislative branch we'd have a bicameral, a legislature where the people elect a
lower layer which then elects a higher layer. supremacy of national government
-new jersey plan was more about limited federal powers because small states were
scared
-great compromise also called connecticut compromise because roger sherman was
representing connecticut and he lead the creation of it
-congress prohibited from stopping international slave trade for 20 years after
constitution ratified
-debate over how to elect a president
-electoral college was the compromise that made nobody happy, people vote for guys
who choose the president even though we still vote for him
-commerce compromise: agreement that allowed government to impose tariffs on
imports but not exports. gave federal gov to regulate trade between states, which
it couldnt under AoC
-OG constitution was basically: article 1 legislative branch, article 2 executive
branch, article 3 judicial branch, article 4 relations among states, article 5
amendment process, article 6 national supremacy, article 7 ratification process

-Article I defnes the basic setup and operation of Congress. Housemembers are
elected by the people every two years. In contrast, state legislatures would elect
senators, who were then beholden to state governments (this provisionwas later
changed by the Seventeenth Amendment). The House became the more representative, or
mnore democratic, institution. Article I has ten sectionsand is the longest
article--about
half of the entire Constitution-revealing the framers concern for representative
lawmaking,
-How to create and define the office of president in Article II stirred one of the
more heated discussions in Philadelphia. The rebellion against a monarch made the
populace concerned about one-person rule. However, the lack of leadership under the
Articles of Confederation and theneed for an executive to take care of the nation's
business made the creation of thepresidencyinevitable. Article II lays out the
requirements to assume this office and the executive's role. As Commander in Chief,
the president oversees and manages the U.S. military. As head of state, the
president receives foreign ambassadors and sends U.S. ambassadors abroad.
-The need for national courts led to Article III, which defines the judiciary. The
framers mentioned only one actual court, the Supreme Court, but they empowered
Congress to create inferior courts. The federal courts have jurisdiction over cases
involving federal law, disputes between states, and concerns that involve
government officials. The president appoints Supreme Court justices and other
federal judges, with approval of the Senate. These judges serve "during good
behavior which in practice means for life.
-Article IV defines relations among the [Link] includes the full faith and
creditclause that requires states to be open about their laws and encourages states
to respectone another's laws. It also requires that "the citizens of each state
shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several
states" In other words, on most issuesstates cannot play favorites with their own
citizens or exclude outsiders from basic privileges and immunities.
-To amend the Articles of Confederation, all thirteen states had to agree. The
challenges of that requirement led the framers to establish a high standard for an
amendment so that it could not bepassed lightly, but not unanimity. A two-thirds
vote in both houses of Congress or a proposal from two-thirds of the states,
followed by ratification from three-fourths of the states, became the process in
Article V to amend the constiuttion.
-To avoid the lack of unification experienced under the AoC and to unite the nation
under stronger national policy, Article VI was included to establish national
supremacy. The supremacy clause makes certain that all states must adhere to the
constitution. Article VI also states that no religious test will be required for a
person to take a government office.
-In Article VII, the framers outlined the amendment proposal process and declared
that the constiution would go into effect when the ninth state convention approved
it.

-The Constitution can be altered or amended in a two- stageprocess. Stage one is a

proposal from either two-thirds of the House and Senate, or with a two-thirds vote
at a convention initiated by the states and called by Congress. Stage two,
ratification, is completed by a vote of three- fourths of the state legislatures or
three-fourths of state ratifying conventions.
-this process outlined in article v is a good balance between flexibility and
stability
-a major example of individual rights conflicting with federal law was the period
after 9/11 which increased surveillance that kinda obstructed personal liberty
-ex. USA PATRIOT Act, a law covering intelligence gathered and shared by executive
branch agencies, points of criminal procedure, and border protection. allowed
government agencies to share info about suspects and widen authority on tapping
phones.
-people questioned the constiutitionality of this law, especially the 4th amendmnet
"no unreasonable searches or seizes"
-muslims extra impacted, but every american lost privacy. government was conducting
widespread collection of information
-USA Freedom Act: upheld portions of PATRIOT act but phased out bulk collection of
phone/internet data and set more limits on collection in certain cases
-increased focus on education from federal government in 1960s as racial
desegragation and cold war competition became bigger concerns
-Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 passed by lyndon b johnson and
congress
-an assault on poverty as much as a reform of education; ensured lesser-funded
schools recieved adequate resources
-state officials welcomed law becasue fed gov used a hands off approach to school
management and it gave local gov leeway on how to spend federal funding
-no child left behind act 2002, called for improvement in teaching methods, testing
to measure progress, and sanctions for underperforming schools. like 80% of schools
couldnt meet its standards and everyone hated it
-obama's race to the top initiative offered incenticves rather tahn sanctions for
states to adopt new national standards that require students to be college and
career ready upon graduation
-2015, Every Student Succeeds Act. under this law states are free to make their own
standards for educational achievement while still upholding protections for
disadvantaged students

1.6 principles of american government

"In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great
difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the
governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself." -James Madison 1788
-the government employs like a LOT of people
-stakeholders (people/groups affected by potential polciies) exert their influence
through special interest groups, which pay lobbyists to lobby lawmakers. in 2020
there were 2 lobbyists representing the interests of big pharma for every person in
congress
-individual citizens can contact representatives and senators by mail or email to
make their voices heard
-citizens can report problems to executive branch agency like the fbi or the eeoc
or something
-The legislature is the most representative branch and makes the public's will
become public policy. The powers of Congress are further separated between the two
chambers. Neither house can pass a bill into law without the consent of the other
chamber. The president is ultimately the authority to enforce the law and to carry
out Congress's policies, so the president and his administration shape policy in
doing so. Members of the Supreme Court and the federal courts, appointed by the
president and confirmed by theSenate,hear disputes and interpret laws and their
application.
-"the legislature makes the law, the executive branch enforces the law, and the
judicial branch interprets the law."
-pocket veto = refusal to sign a bill at all (not vetoing or approving it) at the
end of a legislative session, unlike where usually the president not signing a bill
for 10 days auto approves it
-2/3 override in congress (with each house acting seperately) for presidential veto