Endocrine System

1. General Overview of the Endocrine System

• Formation of Glands
Endocrine glands develop from covering epithelia. Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands
lack ducts and release hormones directly into the bloodstream for transport to target tissues.

• Hormone Delivery
Hormones are secreted into the fenestrated capillary networks that surround endocrine cells.
These capillaries facilitate the rapid transfer of hormones into the circulation.

2. Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

2.1 Location and Basic Structure

• A small, pea-sized organ located at the base of the brain within the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone.
• Attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum (a short stalk) and a rich vascular
network.
• Weighs about 0.5 g in males and 1.5 g in multiparous women (i.e., women who have given
birth two or more times). The increase in mass is partially due to lactotropes enlarging
during pregnancy.
2.2 Divisions of the Pituitary Gland
1. Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)

◦ Pars distalis: The largest portion, arising from the thickened anterior wall of
Rathke’s pouch.
◦ Pars intermedia: A thin region close to the boundary with the posterior lobe.
◦ Pars tuberalis: A collar-like extension that partially wraps around the infundibulum.
2. Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

◦ Pars nervosa: Contains the unmyelinated axons and nerve endings of neurosecretory
neurons from the hypothalamus.
◦ Infundibulum: The stalk continuous with the median eminence of the
hypothalamus, containing the hypothalamohypophyseal tracts.
2.3 Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)

Function

• Produces and secretes hormones that:

1. Regulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones):
▪ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
▪ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
▪ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
 ▪ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
2. Act directly on target tissues:
▪ Growth Hormone (GH)
▪ Prolactin (PRL)
Cell Types (by Staining)

• Acidophils (~40%)
• Basophils (~10%)
• Chromophobes (~50%)
Functional Cell Types

Based on immunocytochemistry, ve main functional cell types exist:

1. Somatotropes (GH cells)

◦ ~50% of all parenchymal cells in the anterior pituitary.

◦ Acidophilic cells producing Growth Hormone (GH), also called somatotropin.
◦ GH release is stimulated by GHRH (Growth Hormone–Releasing Hormone) and
inhibited by somatostatin.
2. Lactotropes (PRL cells / mammotropes)

◦ ~15–20% of anterior lobe cells.

◦ Acidophilic cells secreting Prolactin (PRL).
◦ PRL secretion is under inhibitory control by dopamine from the hypothalamus.
◦ TRH (Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone) and vasoactive inhibitory peptide (VIP)
can stimulate PRL release.
◦ These cells undergo hypertrophy and hyperplasia during pregnancy and lactation,
contributing to the larger pituitary in multiparous women.
3. Corticotropes (ACTH cells)

◦ ~15–20% of anterior lobe cells.

◦ Basophilic cells that produce ACTH, LPH (lipotrophic hormone), MSH
(melanocyte-stimulating hormone), endorphins, and enkephalins.
◦ CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone) from the hypothalamus regulates ACTH
secretion.
4. Gonadotropes (FSH and LH cells)

◦ ~10% of anterior lobe cells.

◦ Basophilic cells secreting FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) and LH
(Luteinizing Hormone).
◦ GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) from the hypothalamus controls their
activity.
5. Thyrotropes (TSH cells)

◦ ~5% of anterior lobe cells.

◦ Basophilic cells producing TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone).
◦ TSH acts on the thyroid gland’s follicular cells, promoting production of
thyroglobulin and thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).
◦ Regulated by TRH from the hypothalamus (which can also stimulate PRL
secretion).
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2.4 Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

• An extension of the central nervous system that stores and releases two major hormones:

◦ Oxytocin: Synthesized in the hypothalamus (paraventricular nucleus).

◦ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH; vasopressin): Synthesized in the hypothalamus
(supraoptic nucleus).
• Structure:

◦ Contains axons that originate in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus, projecting down the infundibulum to terminate in the pars nervosa.
◦ Pituicytes are specialized glial cells found in the posterior lobe, associated with
fenestrated capillaries.

3. Hypothalamohypophyseal Feedback Mechanisms

• A critical feedback system operates between the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the
hormones they regulate.
• Hormones can inhibit or stimulate further release at both the pituitary and the hypothalamic
levels.
• Multiple physiological and psychological stimuli reaching the brain also modulate
hypothalamic output, thereby affecting pituitary hormone secretion.

4. Pineal Gland
• A small, cone-shaped organ projecting from the roof of the third ventricle, just anterior to
the midbrain region.
• Vascularization: Richly supplied by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves; has
numerous fenestrated capillaries.
• Divided into poorly de ned lobules by delicate connective tissue septa.
4.1 Pinealocytes

• The primary cell type, typically arranged in cords or clusters.

• Produce melatonin, which is released from elongated processes into closely associated
fenestrated capillaries.
• Function of melatonin: Regulation of circadian rhythms (e.g., sleep-wake cycle).
4.2 Corpora Arenacea (Brain Sand)

• Mineralized extracellular concretions within the gland.

• They increase in number and size with age and have no known harmful effect on the
gland’s function.

5. Thyroid Gland
• Located in the lower front part of the neck, in contact with the upper trachea.
• Surrounded by a connective tissue capsule that encloses two lobes connected by an
isthmus.
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 ◦ A pyramidal lobe (a remnant of the thyroglossal duct) may persist in about 15% of
individuals.
5.1 Thyroid Follicles

• Spherical arrangements of follicular cells around a lumen that contains colloid.

• Colloid is composed mainly of thyroglobulin, an iodinated glycoprotein that is the
precursor for T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine).
• The gland’s activity level affects epithelial cell height:
◦ Low cuboidal → underactive gland
◦ High cuboidal → overactive gland
• Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4): Increase metabolic rate, oxygen consumption, and are
vital for normal growth and mental function.
5.2 Parafollicular (C) Cells

• Found between the basement membrane and the follicular cells (often called “C cells”).
• Secrete calcitonin, which helps lower blood calcium levels by counteracting the effects of
parathyroid hormone (PTH).

6. Parathyroid Glands
• Typically four small glands, each 3–6 mm in diameter, located on the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland.
• A thin brous capsule sends delicate trabeculae carrying blood vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves into the gland.
6.1 Chief Cells

• Polyhedral, slightly eosinophilic cells, often arranged in irregular cords.

• Responsible for secreting Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), which is crucial for maintaining
blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to release calcium from bone tissue.
6.2 Oxyphil Cells

• Larger, distinctly acidophilic cells that tend to appear singly or in small clusters.
• Their function is less clearly de ned than chief cells, but they are part of normal parathyroid
histology.
6.3 Fat Cells

• Appear within the gland’s stroma and typically increase in number with age.

7. Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

• Paired glands located on the superior poles of the kidneys.
• Surrounded by a dense brous connective tissue capsule that sends thin trabeculae into the
gland.
• Composed of:
1. Adrenal Cortex
2. Adrenal Medulla
7.1 Adrenal Medulla
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 • Forms about 10% of the adrenal gland.
• Contains chromaf n cells, which get their name from a chromaf n reaction (they become
oxidized by chromic acid salts).
• These cells secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, stored in secretory
granules.
• These catecholamines are integral for the “ ght-or- ight” response, modulating heart rate,
blood pressure, and other sympathetic functions.
7.2 Adrenal Cortex

• The cortex is divided into three concentric zones, each producing speci c steroid
hormones.

3. Zona Glomerulosa (outermost)

▪ Cells in rounded or arched clusters.

▪ Mainly secretes aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid).
▪ Aldosterone regulates blood electrolyte balance by controlling sodium and
potassium levels, thus impacting uid balance and blood pressure.
▪ Controlled primarily by angiotensin II (part of the renin–angiotensin–
aldosterone system).
2. Zona Fasciculata (middle, ~75% of cortex)

▪ Cells arranged in radial cords (spongiocytes) separated by sinusoids.

▪ Primarily secretes cortisol (a glucocorticoid).
▪ Cortisol regulates glucose metabolism, the body’s response to stress, and
has immunosuppressive effects.
▪ Under control of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) from the pituitary.
3. Zona Reticularis (innermost, ~5–10% of cortex)

▪ Cells in an anastomosing network of short cords with intervening sinusoids.

▪ Produces cortisol and androgens.
▪ Regulation is similar to the zona fasciculata (also responsive to ACTH).

8. Pancreas (Endocrine Portion)

• Primarily an exocrine gland of digestion; however, it includes endocrine regions called the
islets of Langerhans.
• These islets are incompletely separated from the surrounding exocrine tissue by delicate
reticular connective tissue.
• Blood Supply:
◦ An insuloarterial portal system of several afferent arterioles entering at the islet
periphery.
◦ Extensive fenestrated capillary network for hormone release.
8.1 Islets of Langerhans

• Contain several cell types responsible for regulating blood glucose levels and other
metabolic functions (e.g., insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, etc.).

Key Functional Summaries

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 1. Pituitary: Orchestrates a majority of endocrine glands. Its anterior portion synthesizes
hormones, while its posterior portion stores and releases hypothalamic hormones.
2. Pineal: Exerts in uence on circadian rhythms through melatonin secretion.
3. Thyroid: Modulates overall metabolism (via T3 & T4) and helps regulate blood calcium
(via calcitonin).
4. Parathyroid: Essential for calcium homeostasis (via PTH).
5. Adrenal Cortex: Produces steroid hormones (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and
androgens) in uencing uid balance, metabolism, and stress response.
6. Adrenal Medulla: Secretes catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that drive
acute sympathetic (“ ght-or- ight”) responses.
7. Pancreatic Islets: Control blood glucose and metabolic functions via insulin, glucagon, and
other hormones.
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