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UNIT-4
DC and AC BRIDGE
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:-
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit to
measure is unknown electrical resistance by balancing
two legs of a circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component. The primary benefit of the circuit
is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements
(in contrast with something like a sample voltage
divider). Its operation is similar to the original
potentiometer.
Wheatstone bridge has 4 resistive arms with a source of
EMF. And a null detector which is Galvanometer .The
current through the galvanometer depends upon the
potential difference the point (b and d).
The bridge is called balanced, when the current through
the galvanometer is 0.
So, I1R1=I2R2
If the galvanometer current is ‘0’ then,
I1=I3=F/R1+R3
Similarly,
I2=I4=E/R2+Rx
In the above equation we get,
=>R1/R1+R3=R2/R2+Rx
=>R1 (R2+Rx) =R2 (R1+R3)
=>R1Rx=R2R3
=>Rx=R2R3/R1
Wheatstone bridge is widely used for precision measured
of resistor aprox.1Ω to lower mΩ range.
Kelvin’s bridge:-
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure resistance equal
to or greater than 1- ohm, but if we want to measure the
resistance below 1-ohm, it becomes difficult because the
leads which are connected to the galvanometer adds up the
resistance of the device along with the resistance of leads
leading to variation in measurement of the actual value of
resistance. Hence in order to overcome this problem, we
can use a modified bridge called KELVIN BRIDGE.
Derivation for unknown resistance value:-
The Kelvin bridge “r” which connects “R” (unknown
resistor) to standard resistor “s”. The resistance value can
be viewed in the galvanometer (from “m to n”). if the
pointer galvanometer shows at “m”. it means, the resistance
value is less and if the pointer shows at “n” means the
resistance value is high. Hence rather by connecting
galvanometer to “m” and “n” we choose another
intermediate point “d” in Kelvin Bridge as shown in figure
The value of resistance can be calculated as follows
R1 / R2 = P/Q ………(1)
R+R1 = (P/Q)*(S+R2)
Where from 1
R1/ (R1+R2) = P/ (P+Q)
R1 = [P/ (P+Q)].R
We know that R1+R2=R
R2 = [Q/ (P+Q)].R
R+ [P/ (P+Q)]*R=P/Q [S+ (Q/ (P+Q)*R]……. (2)
From the above equation, we say that by connecting the
galvanometer at point “d” there will be no effect in the
measurement of the actual resistance value, but only
disadvantages of this process is that it is difficult to
implement, hence we can use a Kelvin double bridge for
getting accurate low resistance value.
Balancing condition for Ac Bridge:-
Ac Bridge are those circuits which are used for the
measurement of unknown resistance, capacitance,
inductance, frequency and mutual inductance. Ac bridges
operate with only an ac source. These bridges are very
convenient and give the accurate result of the
measurement. The construction of these bridges is very
simple. Figure 1 shows an ac bridge.
The bridge has four arms (AB, BC, AD, and DC) and four
nodes (A, B, C and D). The source is connected between
two nodes and the balance detector is connected between
the remaining two nodes. Impedances of 3 arms are known
and impedance of remaining arm is unknown. It works on
the same principle as the Wheatstone bridge works. The
null indication in the detector is obtained when the voltage
at node ‘B’ is equal to the voltage at node ‘D’. Due to this,
no current will flow through the detector. In such
condition, a bridge is said to be balanced.
At the balance condition, the current (Id) through the
detector is zero.
Therefore
I1 = I3…… (1)
And
I2 = I4……… (2)
Then from equation (1) and (2), we have
I1/I2 = I3/I4 ………… (3)
At balance condition, the voltage drop across arm ‘AB’ is
equal to the voltage drop across arm ‘AD’.
E1 = E2
I1Z1 = I2Z2
I1/I2 = I2/Z2 ………. (4)
At balance condition, the voltage drop across arm ‘BC’ is
equal to the voltage drop across arm ‘DC’.
E3 = E4
I3Z3 = I4Z4
I3/I4 = Z4/Z3 ……. (5)
From equation (1),it can be seen that equations (4) and
equation(5) are equal and we have
Z2/Z1 = Z4/Z3
Hence
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 …..(6)
Therefore, the products of impedances of opposite arms
are equal.
Maxwell’s bridge:-
The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of
the circuit is known as the Maxwell Bridge. It is the
advanced from of the Wheatstone bridge. The Maxwell
bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the
value of unknown inductance is determined by comparing
it with the known value or standard value.
Maxwell’s inductance bridge:-
In such type of bridges the value of unknown resistance is
determined by comparing it with the known value of the
standard self-inductance. The connection diagram for the
balance Maxwell Bridge is shown in figure below.
Let,
L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R1.
L2 – variable inductance of fixed resistance R1.
R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor
L 2.
R3, R4 –known non-inductance resistance
At balance,
L1 = R3/R4 L2
R1 = R3/R4 (R2+r2)
The value of the R3 and the R4 resistance varies from 10
to 1000 ohms with the help of the resistance box.
Sometimes for balancing the bridge, the additional
resistance is also inserted into the circuit.
The phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance bridge is
shown in figure below.
Advantages of the Maxwell’s bridge:
1) The balance equation of the circuit is free from
frequency.
2) Both the balance equations are independent of each
other.
3) The Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge is used for
the measurement of the high range inductance.
Disadvantages of Maxwell’s bridge:
1) The Maxwell inductor capacitance bridge requires a
variable capacitor which is very expensive. Thus,
sometimes the standard variable capacitor is used in
the bridges.
2) The bridge is only used for the measurement of
medium quality coils.
Schering Bridge:
The Schering bridge use for measuring the
capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor,
properties of an insulator, capacitor bushing, insulating
oil and other insulating materials. It is one of the most
commonly used AC Bridge. The Schering Bridge
works on the principle of the load on its arm.
Let, C1- capacitor whose capacitance is to be
determined.
r1 – a series resistance, representing the loss of the
capacitor C1.
C2 – a standard capacitor (the term standard capacitor
means the capacitor is free from loss)
R3 – a non-inductive resistance
C4 - a variable capacitor
R4 - a variable non-inductive resistance parallel with
variable capacitor C4.
When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current
passes through the detector, which shows that the potential
across the detector is zero. At balance condition
Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4
Z1/Z4 = Z2/Z3
So,
Equating the real and imaginary equations, we get
r1= R3C4/C2………. equ (1)
C1 = C2 (R4/R3) ……….. Equ (2)
The equation (1) and (2) are the balanced equation, and it
is free from the frequency.
Advantages of Schering Bridge:
1. Balance equations are free from frequency.
2. The arrangement of the bridge is less costly as
compared to the other bridges.
Wein’s bridge:
Measurement of frequency by Wein’s bridge:
The wein’s bridge is primarily known as a frequency
determining bridge and is described here not only for
its use as an ac bridge to measure frequency but also
for its application in various other useful circuits.
A wein’s bridge also finds application in
audio and HF oscillators as the frequency determining
device. The below figure shows a wein’s bridge under
balance conditions.
In most wein’s bridge the component are so chosen that
R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C
Then first equation reduces to,
R4/R3=2
And second equation reduces to
f=1/2ΠRC
Switches for resistors R1 and R2 are mathematically linked
so as to fulfils the conditions R1=R2
As so long as C1 and C2 are fixed capacitors equal in value
and R4=2 R3; the wein’s bridge may be used as a frequency
determining device, balanced by a signal control.
Wein’s bridge is suitable for measurement of
frequencies from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. It is possible to
obtain an accuracy of 0.1 to 0.5 percent.