1.

1 Introduction

Communication is a feature which makes human beings different from other animals as we
use language to communicate which other animals do not. To understand human culture as
well as civilization, it is essential therefore to study human communication. Moreover, it is
also true that success people in this world are always better communicators and therefore it
is essential that we learn to be effective communicators so as to achieve our goals in life.
Communication is English Language has been one of the prime focus of English language
teaching as English is not only a global language but also a link language which makes one
marketable almost throughout the world. In this Unit, we will try to understand the basic
tenets and modes of Communication as well as learn how to be effective communicators.
Some Parts of this chapter are taken from the book Communication Skills: Theory and
Practice, published from Bookage Publications, New Delhi. This Unit has shortened parts of
some chapters from the book so as to make it crisp and concise and you are advised to go
through the book for detailed study of the given topics in this unit.
1.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should have learnt about:

The concept of Communication

Human Communication Vs. Animal Communication

Effective Communication

Some Significant concepts related to Communication

1.3 Communication

The word “communication” is used to mean any activity in which information, emotions and
feelings are conveyed from one to another. The word “communication” is derived from the
Latin word “communicare” which means ‘to share’, that is, to share information, ideas,
emotions, knowledge amongst people - to share meaning. It is also thought that the Latin
word “communis” which means ‘commonness’ is another root word for communication.
Communication is the commonest thing that each of us share with fellow human beings. So
from that perspective both words “communicare” and “communis” are significant in
providing meaning to the idea of communication.
Whether we communicate or miscommunicate, communication has a significant role in our
everyday life as we spend a lot of time communicating. We communicate with our friends,
family, relatives, colleagues, employers, and with many people we may not know very well
and even with perfect strangers. It is only through communication that we fulfill our different
needs - whether they are personal, emotional, psychological, educational, social, financial,
professional or cultural. We cannot think of our lives without communication. It is essential

to our existence. Therefore we should be able to communicate effectively in a coherent, clear

and concise manner as success in our life depends on effective communication.
Even in our professional life, our success depends on effective communication. It is through
communication that information is disseminated, distributed, shared among people; it is
through communication that important decisions are taken, shared and made known to
people within and outside organizations. Moreover companies communicate about their
products or services to consumers through advertisements. Thus without communication no
business organization can survive. But communication in general and communication in
professional world are different as the objectives are different. For example, in today’s world,
we communicate a lot over our mobile phones. When we talk to our friends, relatives and
near and dear ones, we communicate for hours where the communication is not that of need,
but of everyday (often nonsensical) things which make the bonding between the
communicators strong. But in case of a professional world, it is diametrically opposite, as we
need to talk sense in a clear, concise, logical and coherent manner if we want to make a mark.
Suppose you are in an office meeting, if you are not able to present your thoughts in a
coherent, logical manner then the chances are that your ideas will not have any audience.
1.4 Defining Communication

The word “Communication” has many definitions. In 1970, communication theorist Frank
Dance counted more than a hundred distinct definitions of communication proposed by
experts in the field. In the years since that survey, even more definitions have surfaced. By
drawing from these multiple definitions, we can define communication as a systemic process
in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.
Generally we define communication as the process of transfer of information between two
sources with the information being understood by both. Some remarkable definitions of
communication are given below.
According to Kelly, “Communication is a field of knowledge dealing with the systematic
application of symbols to acquire common information regarding an object or event”.
According to Luther, “It is the transmission of commonly meaningful information. It is a
process that involves the exchange of behaviours.”
According to A. Kumar, “Communication is the process of making a message
understood by satisfying the need sets and ego sets of a receiver.”
According to Katz and Kahn, “Communication the exchange of information and the
transmission of meaning - is the very essence of a social system or an organisation.”
According to Dr. McFarland, “Communication is the process of meaningful interactions
among human beings. It is a process by which, meanings are perceived and
understandings are reached among human beings.”
According to Brown, “Communication is a process of transmitting ideas or thoughts
from one person to another for the purpose of creating an understanding in the thinking
of the person receiving communication.”
According to Anderson, “Communication is a dynamic process in which, man
consciously or unconsciously affects the cognition of another through materials or
agencies used in symbolic ways.”
In the view of Sanborn, “Communication is the process of sending and receiving
messages.”
According to Fauconnier, “Communication is nevertheless an attempt at making
common the basic condition for the origin, the existence, and the development of every
social relationship.”
According to MT Myers and GE Myers, “Communication refers to special kind of
patterning, which is expressed in a symbolic form. For communication to take place
between or among people, two requirements must be met.
o A symbolic system must be shared by the people involved (we need to speak the
same language or jargon or dialects); and The associations between the symbols and their
referents must be shared.”
According to Fortune, “it is the procedure whereby one mind affects another.”
According to Fearing, “It is a two-way process which cannot be adequately understood
in terms of simple engineering or mechanical analogies. It is uniquely a human
relationship from which, emerge all civilizations and culture without which, man as we
know him, could not survive”.

1.5 Functions of Communication

The function of communication differs from context to context:

1. In the individual context:

It provides knowledge

It gives way to commercial success.

It enforces and adjusts behavioral patterns.

It helps in socialization and building relationships.

It creates legends.

2. In the social context:

It educates people and makes them capable on various fronts.

It persuades the targeted subjects to buy products and/or services.

It generates enthusiasm in the minds of the targeted subjects to develop or modify

views on particular issues

It dissuades them form eschewing some habits, products or services that are harmful

to them or to the society in general.

It provides in social revolution and transformation.

It helps in social revolution and transformation

It performs incidental neutral functions.

It builds an image of individuals or of non-business organisations in the minds of the

masses.

3. In the organisational context:

It serves as an essential tool

It assists in decision making

It keeps the employees enlightened.

It informs the employees informed about their obligations.

It builds good employer-employee relations.

It facilitates the basic management process.

It directs with finesse.

It interacts with the members of the external environments.

It co-ordinates employees’ actions.

It promotes leadership effectiveness.

It gives feedback of the lower cadres.

It evaluates performances for control.

1.6 Effective Communication

To be an effective communicator, certain significant things should be kept in mind –

We must know what the objective of our communication is. Without an aim, we can be
good at saying things in an informal setting (like talking to our friends or relatives), but
for formal communication, such as in an office meeting or in a seminar or while talking to
the boss in office, we cannot merely blabber for no reason at all, we need to have a
concrete aim or objective in mind.
When the objective is set, then the next step is to present our thoughts, emotions,
feelings, etc. with clarity and integrity. If we are not able to present our thoughts clearly,
then how can we expect the listener/s to understand and respond?

The medium chosen for communication should be one both the parties are conversant
with. For example, we must make sure that we communicate in a language in which the
listener/s is/are comfortable. Moreover, we should also choose the medium depending on
whether it is written or oral communication.
An appropriate environment is also necessary for proper delivery of message. Without a
proper environment there is always a chance that the message will be misunderstood or
not properly understood.
Paralinguistic features such as tone, pitch voice, pronunciation, appropriate gestures and
postures, facial expressions, eye contact, dressing, etc. affect the oral communication
process.
No communication is complete without a feedback. Only when we receive a feedback we
know whether whatever we intended has been comprehended by the listener/s or not.
Feedback may not always be in the form of a verbal response. If you are presenting a
paper and see your listeners nodding their head then you understand that they are agreeing
to what you are saying, but if a majority of them are yawning or fidgeting with something
or the other, then it is evident that they are bored. The nodding of the head and yawning
are examples of body language through which we get feedback of how effective we are in
communicating our ideas orally.

1.8. Process of Communication

Communication is a process in which at least two individuals are involved – Sender or the
encoder of the message and the receiver or the decoder. The sender has an idea/ need /
motivation / desire to communicate to the listener/s and s/he encodes the message in
language
(it can even be a gesture or paralanguage) and sends the message using a particular medium
/ channel (such as oral or written or electronic) to the receiver/s. The receiver tries to decode
so that s/he comprehends what the encoder means/ intends. If the encoder and the decoder
share the same basis of encoding and decoding the sounds and symbols, then the
communication succeeds. But if the semantic base of the sender and the receiver is different,
then it leads to miscommunication. Miscommunication or hampered communication can also
happen if appropriate channel or media is not used or if the communication environment is
noisy (we will deal with Noise at greater length while discussing Communication
Barriers).This is only one aspect of communication. Communication is complete only when
the decoder sends feedback to the encoder which tells the sender whether her/his message
has been grasped or not.
2.1 Introduction
In the last unit, we have come across the definitions and some basic features of
Communication as well as the ways in which the human communication differs from animal
communication. We have also learnt how to become effective communicators. These notions
regarding communication probably have given you some information about the
communication theory; in this Unit, the focus will be on different aspects of communication
such as Verbal Communication and Non-verbal communication. We will also understand the
difference between Intra-personal, Inter-personal and Group communication. Special
emphasis will also be laid on the Barriers to communication which can often lead to
miscommunication. Knowing the barriers are not enough till we can make amends to make
ourselves effective communicators and therefore “Seven Cs of Communication” will also be
discussed so as to overcome the barriers to communication. Thus, this chapter takes you
ahead in terms of your understanding of the different communication needs and practices so
as to enable you to form certain communicative skills which will make you a better
communicator. Parts of this chapter are again taken from the book Communication Skills:
Theory and Practice, published from BookAge Publications, New Delhi. This Unit has
shortened the chapters from the book so as to make it crisp and concise. For detailed
information of whatever is discussed in this unit, you can further refer to the book which will
not only provide you with more information on communication but will take you a step
further in understanding the communication needs of human beings.
2.2 Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should have learnt about:
Intra-personal, Inter-personal and Group communication
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
Personal, Social and Business Communication
Barriers and Strategies to Communication
2.3 Levels of Communication
Human beings communicate at different levels depending of the various needs that they have
as we live in a society where without communicating we cannot think of forming
relationships. To understand oneself, to understand others as well as to develop our
understanding of the society, it is essential that we theoretically understand the different kinds
of communications that we engage in our everyday life to make our life worth living. The
different levels of communication are –
Extrapersonal communication
Interpersonal communication
Organizational communication
Mass communication
2.3.1 Extrapersonal Communication
In Extrapersonal Communication, human beings interact with non-human entities. We often
communicate with our pets which can be termed as Extrapersonal communication
2.3.2 Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication happens when we communicate with ourselves which we often
do for various reasons.
2.3.3 Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication refers to all communications that we share with other human
beings.
2.3.4 Organizational Communication
Communication that happens within an organization is termed as Organizational
Communication.
There are different kinds of communication within an organization –
Internal-Operational – within the organization but operational and professional in nature
External-Operational – with people/organizations outside about professional things
Personal – all communication not dealing with operational or professional communication
2.3.5 Mass Communication
When the communication is with a large audience then it is termed as Mass communication.
Mediums like newspapers, magazines, journals, books, audiovisual mediums (radio, TV, and
Internet etc.) are used to communicate with the masses. Even musical and theatrical
performances, cinema, etc. are forms of mass communication.
2.4 Types of Communication
Communication can be classified into the following kinds –
formal and informal,
verbal and non-verbal,
 oral and written, etc.
2.4.1 Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
Communication can also be divided into categories like verbal and non-verbal. Whereas
verbal communication includes both oral and written communication, non-verbal
communication includes any communication which is neither oral nor written, and includes
modes such as postures, gestures, dressing, etc.
[Link] Verbal Communication
In verbal communication, language is used according to the established rules of
grammar/syntax to communicate emotions and feelings, and to share information and
meaning. Depending on the way we use words, by speaking or by writing, verbal
communication is divided into two categories – Oral and Written.
Oral communication or speech is the more frequently used medium of communication.
There are reasons for it to be so. Some of these reasons are:
We need not be literate to speak as is needed in written communication. All human
beings have the competence to speak one or more languages. And to achieve it, he or
she does not need to be taught in a formal educational environment.
Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) which disposes
them to learn a language when they grow up in a socio-cultural environment. A child
learns spoken language naturally just by imitating the elders around him or her.
We speak more than we write as it is a faster, and a more spontaneous and economical
medium of communication.
[Link] Non-Verbal Communication
In many cases, no words are exchanged, yet communication happens as we can also
communicate through our body language which is a non-verbal communication. It is
perceived that non-verbal cues form a major part of communication process (93%)
therefore it is significant that we focus our attention to this aspect of communication. The
non-verbal cues are Kinesics, Proxemics, Chronemics, Haptics, Paralanguage, Silence
and Sign language.
[Link].1 Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body’s physical movements for the purposes of communication,
that is, the way our body communicates without words, through various movements of its
parts. For example, nodding one’s head communicates acceptance. Some body
movements during communication are conscious, whereas others we do unconsciously.
The unconscious body movements are very significant pointers in interpreting messages.
(i) Personal Appearance: Our first impression matters a lot. Before someone starts
communicating, others form an opinion about her/him just by perceiving how the
person has tried to present herself/ himself. Appearance includes clothes, hair,
accessories, and cosmetics and so on. In today’s context, the purpose of clothing has
changed from fulfilling a basic need to expressing oneself.
(ii) Posture: Posture refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit, walk, talk
or choose not to talk. Our postures change according to circumstances. When one is
nervous, one usually starts fidgeting with something or the other like mobile phones.
(iii) Gestures: Gestures are movements made by hands, head or face. Appropriate
gestures supplement verbal communication and are also communication in their own
right.
(iv) Facial Expressions: Facial expressions communicate to the receiver the intent of the
message.
(v) Eye contact: Often our eyes communicate better than the words we utter. Words
become more powerful when the speaker makes eye contact with the listener/receiver
of the message.
2.4. 1.2.2. Proxemics: Space or lack of it between the sender and the receiver of the
message also speak volumes. When one hugs someone, though no words are exchanged
but the warmth of the relationship can be felt by both. This is communication. The study
of physical space in interpersonal relations is called Proxemics. Edward T. Hall (1966)
divides the communication space into four distinct zones –
Intimate: The Intimate zone extends just to 18 inches (one and a half feet). Members
of family, lovers, spouses, relatives, and parents usually communicate in this zone. A
handshake, a pat on the back or a hug are some of the examples of communication in
the Intimate zone.
Personal: The Personal zone stretches from 18 inches (one and half feet) to 4 feet.
Close friends, colleagues, peers, communicate in this zone. This zone is personal and
is quite a relaxed and casual place.

Social: Social zone is in the radius of 4 feet to 12 feet. In this zone, relationships are

more formal and official. The distance between you and the interviewers in an

interview is an example of social zone.

Public: Public zone starts from 12 feet and may extend to 25 feet or to the range of

eyesight and hearing. Events are formal in this zone. For example, When the Prime

minister or the President of India addresses the masses, they usually keep a distance

from them for security reasons. It is an example of public zone.

[Link].3 Chronemics: How we manage our time communicates a lot about the kind of person
we are. The study of the use of time to communicate is known as Chronemics. In
the professional world, time is a valuable resource. When we are late for an appointment,
people react negatively. If we arrive early, we are considered over-eager.
[Link].4 Haptics: Language of Touch: We also communicate with our sense of touch,
which is known as Haptics. The way we communicate by our physical contact or by
touching the other person is known as Haptics. Kissing, slapping, or shaking hands are
ways of Haptics.
[Link].5 Paralanguage: Paralanguage is the way meaning is conveyed by how we say
things while speaking. When a telephone bell rings and you pick up the receiver and hear
the word “hello” it not only greets you, but also tells you about the gender of the person,
the voice is of someone familiar, and the sociolinguistic and educational background of
the person calling. All these are not contained in the word “hello” but are manifest in the
way the word is spoken. Paralanguage consists of various aspects – Vocalizations of
Words. There are different dimensions of it based on –
a) Volume Variation

b) Speed of Speaking

c) Pauses

d) Word Stress

e) Inflections (Inflections are the small bits of sounds that are attached to utterances.)

f) Non-fluencies (sounds such as “ummm” or “errr”. These sounds are called

nonfluencies.)

2.4.2 Sign Language

Sign language refers to symbols which are commonly used within a particular
community or communicative group to mean something that is constant for all the members
of that community. For example, Traffic signals are signs or symbols that are common all over
the world. These signs are abstractions which people agree on the meanings to make it work.
Other examples of signs are road signals, graphs, maps, alarms, sirens, etc.
Audio Signs

Visual Signs

Audio-visual signs

2.4.3. Formal and Informal Communication

Depending on the circumstance and the person/s one is interacting with, one chooses
whether to communicate formally or informally. In that sense, communication can be
categorized into formal and informal. Grapevine is the other name for informal
communication. Mostly in the professional world, we tend to communicate formally as the
occasion demands it; but in our personal life we are usually informal.

2.4 Flow of Communication

Communication in an organization can be both formal and informal, but in majority of cases
within an organization the communication is formal and patterned –

Vertical Communication: Vertical communication consists of both upward and

downward communication in an organizational communication chain– that is,
communication between the superiors and the subordinates within an organization’s
hierarchy. For smooth functioning of an organization, there should be a balance between
superiors communicating to the subordinates (Downward) and the subordinates
communicating to the superiors (Upward).
Horizontal/Lateral Communication: Horizontal or Lateral Communication is
communication between employees who are at the same hierarchical level in an
organizational hierarchy.
Diagonal Communication: In Diagonal Communication, the flow of communication is
in all directions and it cuts across an organization’s hierarchy, making it quick and
2.7 Barriers to Communication
Communication is a smooth transmission of information, ideas, emotions and feelings (and
more importantly transmission of meaning) from one to another where the intended message
encoded by the sender is grasped by the receiver and s/he responds accordingly. But in many
cases we fail to communicate the desired information, knowledge or emotion as some barrier
crops up between the sender and the receiver which prevents successful communication,
distorts the message or hampers the process and makes communication meaningless. For
example, when we are communicating orally it may happen that the communication
environment is noisy and consequently the receiver of the message is not able to hear us
clearly. The noisy environment is a barrier to communication. It may also happen that two
unknown persons accidentally meet and want to communicate but do not have a common
language that can be the medium in which they can communicate. Or maybe when we are
writing if our handwriting is illegible or we use very subject-specific jargon which the
receiver has no knowledge of, then the communication would not achieve its desired goal. In
these cases, illegible handwriting or the highly-specialized-jargonized language are barriers
to communication. In short, it can be said that barriers to communication can simply be
defined as anything that prevents the smooth exchange of meaning between a sender and
receiver.
In the field of business communication, the communication barrier or any unwanted
interference between the speaker/encoder and the receiver/decoder which hampers the
communication flow is termed as Noise. Noise here does not merely refer to the physical
noise but to any barrier that prevents the flow of communication. If the barrier or the noise
is of a technological nature then it can easily be avoided as technical snags can be corrected
easily. Suppose, you are in a basement of a building where the reception of a mobile network
is not very good and you receive a call, it is always advised that you move out of the
basement to let the communication be smooth. But if the noise or the barrier is due to some
human error, then it takes a long time and sustained effort to correct as the human errors are
linked to one’s habits and psychology. For example, if one has a problem of always assuming
a sense of superiority whenever communicating, then it can easily become a deterrent for
others to be attentive to her or his thoughts and emotions. The person’s sense of superiority
can lead others to feel that they are deliberately and consciously being underrated, leading
them to be detached or indifferent to the message being communicated.
2.7.1 Classification of Barriers to Communication
Noise or barriers can be of two kinds:
1. Channel Noise
2. Semantic Noise
The difference between the Channel Noise and Semantic noise can be summarized as
Channel Noise develops externally (that is, external to the message) whereas the
Semantic
Noise is internal to the message.
[Link] Channel Noise
When there is any unwanted interference or snag in the medium of communication
process it is termed as channel noise, for example, a noisy market place and illegible
handwriting can be termed as channel noise as in both the cases the factors that create
communication failure are not an intrinsic part of the message – in one case it is the
communication environment which is not suitable for communication and in the other the
medium of communication, [Link], is not readable. There can be many kinds of channel
[Link] are some of the causes with examples of Channel Noise:
Physical Noise in the Channel: Undesirable physical noise is a great barrier to
communication. Any physical noise which is not related to the communication process
can cause a barrier.
Use of Inappropriate Media: Inappropriate selection of media to communicate
messages can lead to miscommunication or may not have the desired result. For example,
you are the manager of a company which is bidding for a tender; will it be possible to bid
for tender using oral communication? Oral communication is an inappropriate media for a
bid for tender.
Multiple Transfer Stations: If a clerical staff of an organization figures out a mistake in
some document and wants to communicate it to the Director and informs her/his higher
official who then informs her/his superior and then her/his superior to the Director, then it
may happen that because of the Multiple Transfer Stations, the content of the message is
lost. It may also happen that the message changes in its tone and meaning because of it
being transferred too many times which hampers the communication.
Information Overload: A message should only provide that much information as is
required to understand it. Too much of information can lead to a situation where the
intended message is lost.
Fear of Superiors: It often happens that one wants to pass on some information to one’s
superior, but s/he cannot do it as s/he feels that the senior/superior would get offended.
Often the way superior would react makes us not to communicate what we truly feel or
think which can be a major barrier to smooth functioning of an organization.
Negative Presuppositions: One usually has a feeling that a memo is always issued to
seek clarification or to warn or to inform, whereas a memo can also be issued to
congratulate someone. People have a negative presupposition about memos. So when
someone gets news that her or his friend got a memo, s/he starts feeling bad without any
reason.
Communication Selectivity: When we are selective in our listening, it can be a barrier to
communication. It also can be a significant barrier when one decides to read only parts of
a document.
Poor Listening: If one is a poor listener than it can itself be a barrier to communication.
Listening is a significant thing in the process of communication.

[Link] Semantic Noise

Semantic Noise can be defined as noise or barrier that is generated from within a message. As
language is connotative, that is, meaning of a word is not always stated directly and can also
be implied; therefore the communication process fails many times as the same word is
interpreted differently by different people. For example, if someone says that ‘the bark is
strong’ then the meaning of the sentence will depend on the context in which it is spoken. In
one context it may mean a dog’s bark and in another the bark of a tree. So if the context is
not
given to us then the meaning becomes inaccessible. Sometimes ambiguity in the language
may also cause semantic noise, for example, if one says – “I saw Ravi going with some old
men and women”, one is not sure whether the adjective ‘old’ applies only to the men or also
to the women. There can be numerous such examples of semantic noise.
Below are some of the causes with examples of Semantic Noise.
Limited Vocabulary: Limited vocabulary can become a significant barrier to
communication as it can create not only a problem in understanding things, but also may
lead to a situation where the person is not able to express what s/he intends to express.
One also has to keep in mind that having an extensive vocabulary does not always ensure
that one would be a good communicator. For effective communication, one should know
which words to use in which circumstances. Moreover, words have their literal meaning
(denotative) as well as symbolic (connotative) meaning. One should have knowledge
about both to use them in right situations and also to comprehend them when they are
used by others.
Incompatibility between Verbal and Non-verbal Language: We communicate not
only with our words, but also with non-verbal cues – dress, eye contact, physical touch,
facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc. Often we use non-verbal cues or body language
consciously, but many a times the non-verbal cues are unconscious. It is essential that our
gestures and postures are compatible with our words. Whenever it is not so, we are
misinterpreted or misunderstood.
Varied Perception due to Different Backgrounds, such as Cultural: Each one of us
perceives the same incident or entity in a different way which can lead to communication
failure. For example, the librarian of your college called a library committee meeting to
discuss the issue of books being stolen from the library. The chairperson of the committee
came to the meeting and pointed out that stealing of books suggests that the students are
interested in gaining knowledge and recommended that all books to be replaced and at the
most security measures can be tightened. Many others in the meeting felt that this was not
the solution, yet they did not say anything as they did not dare to oppose the Chair. This is
an example of varied perception because of the ways in which we try to look at the world.
Our background decides the way we interpret a message. To a poor person who is
suffering from hunger, the beauty of a full moon does not appeal. Our social, cultural,
2.8 Strategies to overcome Barriers to Communication
If one desires to be an effective communicator then one needs to learn ways to avoid barriers
or noise so that communication failures do not happen. When a particular communication
fails to evoke any response or the desired response because of some noise or barrier to
communication, then the following steps can help solve the problem:
Identify the problem – Find the cause or barrier – Work on alternative solutions –
Opt for the best solution – Follow up rigorously
The first step is to identify the problem. When we can identify the problem, then we can find
a solution for it. To identify the problem, it is necessary that one analyzes the feedback or the
lack of it carefully. Once the barrier is located, then one can figure out easily the cause of the
barrier and can look for all possible solutions. The best solution should then be opted for and
then followed consciously so that the barrier does not crop up again.

2.9 Listening
It is important to speak well, but it is more significant to be a good listener. Listening is not
the same as hearing. We hear many sounds coming to us from various corners, but we do not
bother to fathom the significance of all those sounds. It is only to some sounds we turn our
attentive ears as they mean something significant to us. It is important to listen carefully as it
is the first step towards being a better communicator. When one is listening carefully, one
communicates the message that s/he is serious.
There are many kinds of listening –
Evaluative listening: While listening to the arguments in a Board meeting, the directors
of a company evaluate the arguments of the speaker while listening; it can be called
evaluative listening.
Discriminative listening: Suppose in the Annual Dinner of a company the Director is
chatting with all the staff of the organization informally, where some are listening to what
he is saying while others are busy with their own discussions. This can be an example of
discriminative listening.
Appreciative listening: When one listens with a kind of appreciation for what is spoken,
it is called appreciative listening. For example, if someone is presenting the financial
report of a company and people are nodding heads in appreciation, it can be an example
of Appreciative listening.
Emphatic/Empathetic listening: When one listens to the speaker with empathy or
sympathy, then it is called Emphatic Listening. For example, if in a negotiation, one party
is presenting her/his point of view and the other party sympathizes with her/his point of
view, then it can be called Emphatic listening.
3.4 Monologue and Dialogue
Conversation is a part and parcel of our everyday life. In the last chapter we have figured out
how communication has been an integral part of our life. We have also read how there are
different kinds of communication. In this section we will focus on Monologue and Dialogue
as means of communication and emphasize on the significance of each of these and the
differences between them.
A monologue, as the term suggests, is an oral communication which is conveyed by one
person, or it may also be a long one-sided conversation. The Greek origin of the word means
“speaking alone” in the sense when one person does all the talking. It can be said that when
a speaker monopolizes any conversation because of his or her ideas and knowledge or for any
other reason which puts him or her in a privileged position of making others listen to her or
him, then it is a monologue. Usually it is thought that monologue is boring in nature as it is a
kind of communication when the person speaking is in some way superior to the listeners –
either in age, or in rank, or in knowledge, etc.; but it is not always true. Think about your
classroom situation when a teacher enters a class and gives a lecture on a new topic. What
s/he may do is to give a lecture where there is no space for the students to put up questions
to him or her as it may be a very large class where there is no scope for dialogues or for any
other reason. Or think about a video lecture in which there is no scope for interaction where
the lecturer speaks and others just listen. Or think about a situation when the Prime minister
of a country gives a speech in radio or television, it is a monologue where the citizens listen
to it to get information or some directive. Similarly in an office set up, a boss in an office
may give some instructions in the form of monologue. In all these above examples we see
that the speaker has some privileged position which makes him or her say things which others
just listen.
As a monologue is when a single person does all the talking, therefore it is essential that the
monologist or the speaker is well prepared, logical, coherent and listener-friendly in what
s/he says, otherwise it will tend to be boring. When we speak, it fades away fast; therefore it
is important that the speaker keeps in mind that he or she is not very fast and uses vocabulary
which is easily understandable and links ideas in such a manner that the listeners find it
logical.
In many of Shakespearean plays we see him using a lot of soliloquies and they are of
immense dramatic value as they not only present the inner dilemma of the protagonist, but
at the same time are immensely rhetorical and poetic. When one is rhetorical in the right
sense
of the term, half the work is already done as how one says things is more significant than
what one says. So the style of expression is of supreme significance for a speaker when s/he
is engaging in a monologue.
Whereas certain occasions make it inevitable that a speaker enters into a monologue; but
often the means of communication is dialogue where two or more people take turns to put
forward their points of view, along with non-verbal cues, to often reach a conclusion. Think
about a class room situation when the teacher enters the class and starts a topic with few
general questions for the students. Students respond to the question and then the teacher
sumsup the discussion along with his or her point of view. It is an example of a dialogue. Or
you are going for an interview and there you are asked questions on your subject, on general
topics, on your strengths, your career plan, etc. It is a dialogue between you and the panelists
in the interview board. Or think about a Board Meeting, where different members are
discussing things according to the agenda of the meeting so as to reach a conclusion, it is an
example of dialogue. Or as you finish your classes, two of you are discussing about going for
a movie, it is also an example of a dialogue. Or suppose the President of a nation has visited
India and is engaging with some bilateral treaties with the Indian counterpart, then it can only
be possible through dialogues.
Thus dialogues can be of various kinds depending on the context. But what is significant in a
dialogue is that each party that enters into the field of communication in a dialogue has the
space and time to put forward his or her point of view. In that sense, dialogues are democratic
in nature, where individuals get chance to have their say unlike a monologue where a single
person takes over the talking because of his or her privileged position and others are mere
receptors of the communication.
The most important facet of a dialogue is to taking turns – that is, the speaker is not always a
speaker; but speaks for a while and then let the other person come up with his or her ideas,
queries, responses, etc. Dialogue is a democratic means to come to a conclusion. These days
we see that a lot of emphasis is also put forward by different institutions and companies to
initiate dialogues with their customers / prospective customers as it is beneficial for a
company or an institution to do so.

3.5 Group Discussions

Group Discussion is used extensively these days along with personal interviews for the
selection of candidates for jobs. Written test, experience, qualification and academic
credentials often are not the only criterion that the employers are looking for in today’s
competitive world. What they want is that the applicant should have leadership qualities, can
handle problems easily and can manage human resources. Academic credentials are required,
but all these are also of consequence in the professional world. Therefore in many occasions,
Group Discussion (GD) is an integral part of the selection process.
One can say that GD is nothing but a test of personality, in the sense that whether a person
applying for a job will be able to handle the professional situations or not. It is to be
remembered here that one of the significant ways in which human resources can be managed
is through effective communication and therefore any employer will like to have effective
communicators in his or her institution / company. Leadership is a pre-requisite; but all
leaders are at the same time effective communicators. Group Discussion is a significant
device to test the communication skills and the leadership qualities of applicants, as well as
how well one can manage others’ views.
As in a GD, all the participants, are vying for the post therefore unlike an interview, therefore
there is a spirit of competition when one is trying to prove himself or herself better than the
rest. In a personal interview, one’s personality is assessed through questions, but in a GD, the
candidates are observed in action and thus it is a very significant way to figure out the
strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. Therefore it is essential that while one is
preparing to be employed one prepares oneself mentally and psychologically for a GD. The
following are the aspects that the participant of a GD should keep in mind --
Leadership is a must in a professional world. Leadership does not only mean that one is
ahead of the others; but it suggests how one can accommodate the interests of as many
people as possible and steer the boat forward.
In a GD, in most cases, the participants would be eager to create the right initiative. It
is true that a leader initiates the discussion. But along with speaking what you think
on the given topic, it is also important to listen to what others have to say about the
topic so that discussion continues. It is not that one needs to be always speaking. One
should say things in clear, concise and straightforward manner and then look for
others’ responses and opinions on your view and if necessary, ready to defend your
point.
In a GD, it is evident that there will be many views which will be diametrically
opposite to each other; and the leader will be the one who will be able to comprehend
these views together to come up with a possible direction for the discussion.
There may be some participant(s) in a GD who is/are not so vocal as the rest, a leader
would also ask for their opinion(s), so as to make them a part of the discussion.
In other words, a leader’s role in a GD is to control the discussion and give it a
direction by accommodating others’ views and reach a conclusion.
It is true that one needs to lead a group of participants in a GD, but that can happen only
when one has a thorough knowledge about the subject on which the discussion is taking
place. It is true that with one’s rhetorical power one can conceal one’s lack of knowledge;
but that can happen for few moments. Rhetoric is an important ally in oral
communication but it can help only when one has thorough knowledge about the subject.
Usually in a GD, the topic is of general nature and/ or about the recent happenings around
the world. If one is acquainted with the general knowledge about recent happenings then
the following –
Think and speak rationally / logically
Able to think instantly
Speak in a simple, straightforward language.
Clarity of ideas and presentation skills is a must in a GD. One should be able to
quickly make a distinction between core and non-core ideas/ issues in the discussion
and focus on the core issues.
Analytical abilities are also looked for in a GD. One should be able to analyse a topic
in its minutest details. Theoretical knowledge is good; but till the time it cannot be
applied to practical use then it is not of any use. Often topics in GD are such that it is
expected that participants are able to instantly analyse the topic in detail.
Non-verbal communication is also significant in a GD. Our body speaks more than
our speech. How one maintains oneself in a GD through his or her body language is
of concern as it is the body language which will show one’s conviction in what s/he
is speaking, how attentive one is to others’ views, how flexible one is to others’
opinions and views, etc.
3.6 Facing Interviews
The term “Interviews” probably rings the prospect of employment to our minds. But apart
from that there are many other kinds of interviews, interviews for getting in premier
academic institutions, interviews that we read in newspapers or watch in television or
internet, etc. But for the present context we will restrict ourselves to facing interview for
academic and professional excellence. Interviews can be termed as an oral tool to test the
academic and non-academic credentials for employment or entry to an academic institution.
Usually any employer would like to figure out before employing anyone whether the person
is suitable for employment and whether he or she will serve the purpose for which s/he will
be recruited. Similarly, an academic interview tries to find out if the applicant is suitable for
pursuing a particular course or if the student has put in efforts to get the diploma or degree
for
a particular course, if the interview is for the purpose of evaluation. Thus whatever be the
purpose of the interview, the interviewer purports to find out your competence about your
subject, your communicative competence, your excellence in fields related to the job, your
personality, your attitude and aptitude, etc. Usually interviews are taken by a panel of experts
and it is essential that one maintains an eye contact with almost all members of the panel.
It is to be kept in mind here that in an interview it is essential to focus on your positive areas
so as to create an impact on the people interviewing you. Following things should be kept in
mind while facing an interview.
(a) We all know that we should attire ourselves according to the occasion. Similar holds true
for interviews too. As interview is a formal occasion, therefore you must try to put
forward attire which is formal and give a nice impression about you.
(b) It is essential to have the etiquette to wish the people in the interview board / panel and
not to do anything that would make them feel that you are rude or over-confident or a
fool.
(c) Mostly, the questioned in an interview are related to your subject of specialization;
therefore it is a prerequisite that you know your subject well and is able to deliver
responses to the questions put forward by the interviewer(s).
(d) Often interviewers ask you questions about your personal life which should be answered
tactfully without divulging much of your personal life, and at the same time, by not ….
(e) Questions which are of general nature needs to be answered with confidence and it is
essential as interviewers try to figure out if you are aware about things apart from your
subject.
(f) Your communication should show your confidence and conviction in what you speak.
(g) Your non-verbal cues should match your words and at no time you should show with
your gestures or facial expressions that you are getting irritated or bored or aloof to what
the interviewers are enquiring about. Moreover, your non-verbal communication should
reflect your enthusiasm and interest in the prospective job.
Before facing the panelists of an interview for employment, you should ask yourself three
things which would be helpful in your performance. They are –
(1) Do you know yourself?
(2) Do you know about the company / institution?
(3) Do you know the Job Profile?
Do you know yourself? – Before going for an interview you should determine your strengths
and weaknesses are as it is a topic that you may not only be asked on; but also the panelists
on the interview board will be eager to figure out. So you should do a self evaluation before
you walk in for an interview; so that you are not faced with an embarrassing situation or are
jolted by questions from the panelists.
Do you know about the company / institution? – It is important to know about the company
or the institution for which you have made up your mind to work for and is facing the
interview. A little bit of work norms and ethics, their business and other concerns, their
opportunities, etc. will help you to answer questions in a much more definite way.
Do you know the Job Profile? – It is also important to know the job profile as that would
make you justify why you want to join for such a job. In other words, how your career goal
matches with the profile of the job and how both you and the institution will benefit if you
are given a chance to serve the institution or company.
3.7 Public Speech / Presentation
Public speech or Presentation is one such forms of mass communication where one addresses
a (large) gathering of people. Giving a speech is a craft that one needs to inculcate in oneself
so in professional life it may come to much use. It is not that only a political leader needs to
know the craft of addressing large audience, but there are various kinds of jobs throughout
the world where the art of addressing mass is a prerequisite. Think about a situation when
you are heading an institution or you are the Public relations officer or the media coordinator
of an institution, it becomes essential for you to address large audience. Moreover, think
about you making a presentation for a company, aren’t you addressing public? So, public
Speech / presentation are significant in our professional life.
Public Speech is different from Presentations in the sense that in Public Speech one is
speaking to divergent mass whose background one is not aware of, whereas in presentation
one is speaking to a select group of people whose academic and professional background are
more or less similar to you and who have (more or less) similar interests. So a presentation is
of a different nature than that of a Public Speech, but in both forms of oral communication
what is needed is to catch the attention of the people which can be done either by speaking
something new which the audience is not aware of or by saying things in such a manner
which catches the attention of people. New ideas, new information is something that makes
people attentive to the listener, but in all contexts it is essential that one needs to use a
language which is the audience will be accustomed with. For a presentation one can and one
should use a subject-specific language (register), as the select group of audience is aware of
such subject specific terminologies; but when it comes to a Public Speech it is essential that
one uses as simple and straightforward language as possible.
In Public Speech, one has to rhetorical to catch the attention of the audience. It is very
important to gauge the pulse of the audience as soon as possible and then react according to
it. When one is a public leader, one has to figure out what are the expectations of the
audience and one needs to present oneself according to those expectations. But at the same
time one needs to go beyond those expectations to mark oneself as a good speaker.
In a presentation whether in a classroom or an office or a boardroom, etc, one has to keep in
mind various things. They are –
Time Limit: Usually in a presentation there is a time limit given and one should try to
wrap up one’s presentation within that time as there should a discussion post-presentation
about what you presented. Moreover, keeping within the time limit is necessary as the
audience’s time should be valued.
Prepare yourself by writing: though in a presentation one speaks as one does in an
extempore, but it is to be kept in mind that presentations are to be prepared beforehand
and if possible even rehearsed so that you do not miss anything. Often it is good to write
down the presentation and if not write down the whole thing then atleast make a structure
in a piece of paper so that you have a framework ready. Examples, anecdotes, etc. should
also be noted so that it is helpful during the presentation and one does not miss anything.
Often the framework of the presentation is circulated within the audience so that they are
aware of the framework one is following during presentation. These days, people often
take help of multimedia devices during presentation to make things clear.
Non-verbal cues are very important during presentations as one’s body language, facial
expressions, postures, etc. speaks a lot about what one intends to say. The conviction and
confidence in what one is saying is brought forward in one’s presentation through the
body language. Moreover, keeping an eye contact with the audience is a must as it
ensures that your words are meant for them and it also helps in understanding their
responses so as to mould the presentation accordingly. If one’s gaze is constantly fixed at
the written document from where you are presenting, then it may cause boredom in your
audience. Never read the presentation, but speak from it.
It is important often to provide an overview about what you are presenting as it makes it
easier for the audience to follow it.
It is also important that you emphasize what your main points are and where you are
digressing as well as give them a summary of your presentation as the end of the talk.
A presentation ending with a bang always is significant as it makes the audience have a
strong impression about you as well as your presentation. At the end it is also important
to ask audience for their comments, queries, suggestions, etc.