UNIT – II

Stack and Queue

Introduction
Stack:
In the pushdown stacks only two operations are allowed: push the item into the stack and pop the item
out of the stack. A stack is a limited access data structure - elements can be added and removed from
the stack only at the top. push adds an item to the top of the stack, pop removes the item from the top.
A helpful analogy is to think of a stack of books; you can remove only the top book, also you can add
a new book on the top.

Queue:
An excellent example of a queue is a line of students in the food court of the UC. New additions to a
line made to the back of the queue, while removal (or serving) happens in the front. In the queue only
two operations are allowed enqueue and dequeue. Enqueue means to insert an item into the back of
the queue, dequeue means removing the front item. The picture demonstrates the FIFO access. The
difference between stacks and queues is in removing. In a stack we remove the item the most recently
added; in a queue, we remove the item the least recently added.

FIFO & LILO and LIFO & FILO Principles

Queue: First In First Out (FIFO): The first object into a queue is the first object to leave the queue, used by a queue.
Stack: Last In First Out (LIFO): The last object into a stack is the first object to leave the stack,
used by a stack
OR
Stack: First In Last Out (FILO): The first object or item in a stack is the last object or item to leave
the stack.
Queue: Last In Last Out (LILO): The last object or item in a queue is the last object or item to leave
the queue.
Stack C Code:
void initialize(struct stack* stackPtr); int
full(struct stack* stackPtr);
int push(struct stack* stackPtr, int value); int
empty(struct stack* stackPtr);
int pop(struct stack* stackPtr); int
top(struct stack* stackPtr);

int main() {

int i;
struct stack mine;

// Set up the stack and push a couple items, then pop one. initialize(&mine);
push(&mine, 4);

push(&mine, 5);
printf("Popping %d\n", pop(&mine));

// Push a couple more and test top. push(&mine, 22);

push(&mine, 16);

printf("At top now = %d\n", top(&mine));

// Pop all three off. printf("Popping

%d\n", pop(&mine)); printf("Popping
%d\n", pop(&mine)); printf("Popping
%d\n", pop(&mine));
// Checking the empty function. if
(empty(&mine))
printf("The stack is empty as expected.\n");

// Fill the stack.

for (i = 0; i<10; i++)

push(&mine, i);
// Check if full works. if
(full(&mine))
printf("This stack is full as expected.\n");

// Pop everything back off. for

(i = 0; i<10; i++)
printf("popping %d\n",pop(&mine));

system("PAUSE");
return 0;
}

void initialize(struct stack* stackPtr) {

stackPtr->top = -1;
}

// If the push occurs, 1 is returned. If the

// stack is full and the push can't be done, 0 is

// returned.

int push(struct stack* stackPtr, int value) {

// Check if the stack is full. if

(full(stackPtr))
return 0;

// Add value to the top of the stack and adjust the value of the top.
stackPtr->items[stackPtr->top+1] = value;
(stackPtr->top)++; return
1;
}

// Returns true iff the stack pointed to by stackPtr is full. int

full(struct stack* stackPtr) {
return (stackPtr->top == SIZE - 1);

// Returns true iff the stack pointed to by stackPtr is empty. int

empty(struct stack* stackPtr) {
return (stackPtr->top == -1);
}

// Pre-condition: The stack pointed to by stackPtr is NOT empty.

// Post-condition: The value on the top of the stack is popped and returned.

// Note: If the stack pointed to by stackPtr is empty, -1 is returned. int

pop(struct stack* stackPtr) {

int retval;

// Check the case that the stack is empty. if

(empty(stackPtr))
return EMPTY;

// Retrieve the item from the top of the stack, adjust the top and return

// the item.

retval = stackPtr->items[stackPtr->top];
(stackPtr->top)--;
return retval;

// Pre-condition: The stack pointed to by stackPtr is NOT empty.

// Post-condition: The value on the top of the stack is returned.

// Note: If the stack pointed to by stackPtr is empty, -1 is returned. int

top(struct stack* stackPtr) {
 // Take care of the empty case. if
(empty(stackPtr))
return EMPTY;

// Return the desired item.

return stackPtr->items[stackPtr->top];

Queue C Code:
// Example of how to implement a queue with an array. #include
<stdio.h>

#define EMPTY -1

#define INIT_SIZE 10

// Stores our queue.

struct queue {
int* elements; int
front;
int numElements;
int queueSize;
};

void init(struct queue* qPtr);

int enqueue(struct queue* qPtr, int val); int
dequeue(struct queue* qPtr);
int empty(struct queue* qPtr); int
front(struct queue* qPtr);
int main() {

int i;

// Allocate space for our queue and initialize it.

struct queue* MyQueuePtr = (struct queue*)malloc(sizeof(struct queue));

init(MyQueuePtr);

// Enqueue some items.

enqueue(MyQueuePtr, 3);
enqueue(MyQueuePtr, 7);

enqueue(MyQueuePtr, 4);

// Try one dequeue.

printf("Dequeue %d\n", dequeue(MyQueuePtr));

// Enqueue one more item, then try several dequeues and one front. enqueue(MyQueuePtr,
2);
printf("Dequeue %d\n", dequeue(MyQueuePtr));

printf("At Front of Queue Now: %d\n", front(MyQueuePtr));

 printf("Dequeue %d\n", dequeue(MyQueuePtr)); printf("Dequeue
%d\n", dequeue(MyQueuePtr));
// See if we can detect an empty queue.
printf("Is empty: %d\n", empty(MyQueuePtr));

// Try enqueuing and dequeuing again to make sure that our previous

// operations didn't "corrupt" the queue.

enqueue(MyQueuePtr, 5);
enqueue(MyQueuePtr, 9);

// Try lots of enqueues to test the dynamic capability of the queue. for
(i=30; i<60; i++)
enqueue(MyQueuePtr, i);

// Dequeue everything. while

(!empty(MyQueuePtr))
printf("Dequeue %d\n", dequeue(MyQueuePtr));

return 0;

// Pre-condition: qPtr points to a valid struct queue.

// Post-condition: The struct that qPtr points to will be set up to represent an

// empty queue.

void init(struct queue* qPtr) {

// The front index is 0, as is the number of elements. qPtr-

>elements = (int*)malloc(sizeof(int)*INIT_SIZE); qPtr->front
= 0;
qPtr->numElements = 0;
qPtr->queueSize = INIT_SIZE;

// Pre-condition: qPtr points to a valid struct queue and val is the value to

// enqueue into the queue pointed to by qPtr.

// Post-condition: If the operation is successful, 1 will be returned, otherwise

// no change will be made to the queue and 0 will be returned.

// Note: Right now, I don't know how to detect that the realloc failed, so 0
// does not get returned.

int enqueue(struct queue* qPtr, int val) {

int i;

// Regular case where our queue isn't full. if

(qPtr->numElements != qPtr->queueSize) {
 // Enqueue the current element. Note the use of mod for the wraparound

// case. Edit the number of elements.

qPtr->elements[(qPtr->front+qPtr->numElements)%qPtr->queueSize] = val; (qPtr-

>numElements)++;

// Signifies a successful operation. return

1;
}

// Case where the queue is full, we must find more space before we enqueue. else {
// Allocate more space!

qPtr->elements = realloc(qPtr->elements, (qPtr->queueSize)*sizeof(int)*2);

// Copy all of the items that are stored "before" front and copy them

// into their new correct locations.

for (i=0; i<=qPtr->front-1; i++)
qPtr->elements[i+qPtr->queueSize] = qPtr->elements[i];

// Enqueue the new item, now that there is space. We are guaranteed that

// no wraparound is necessary here.

qPtr->elements[i+qPtr->queueSize] = val;

// More bookkeeping: The size of the queue as doubled and the number of

// elements has increased by one.

(qPtr->queueSize) *= 2;
(qPtr->numElements)++;

return 1;

// Pre-condition: qPtr points to a valid struct queue.

// Post-condition: If the queue pointed to by qPtr is non-empty, then the value

// at the front of the queue is deleted from the queue and

// returned. Otherwise, -1 is returned to signify that the queue

// was already empty when the dequeue was attempted. int

dequeue(struct queue* qPtr) {
int retval;

// Empty case.

if (qPtr->numElements == 0)
return EMPTY;
// Store the value that should be returned.
retval = qPtr->elements[qPtr->front];
// Adjust the index to the front of the queue accordingly. qPtr-
>front = (qPtr->front + 1)% qPtr->queueSize;
Stack ADT:

A stack is an Abstract Data Type (ADT), commonly used in most programming languages. It is
named stack as it behaves like a real-world stack, for example – a deck of cards or a pile of plates, etc.

A real-world stack allows operations at one end only. For example, we can place or remove a card or
plate from the top of the stack only. Likewise, Stack ADT allows all data operations at one end only.
At any given time, we can only access the top element of a stack.

This feature makes it LIFO data structure. LIFO stands for Last-in-first-out. Here, the element which
is placed (inserted or added) last, is accessed first. In stack terminology, insertion operation is called
PUSH operation and removal operation is called POP operation.

Stack Representation
The following diagram depicts a stack and its operations −

A stack can be implemented by means of Array, Structure, Pointer, and Linked List. Stack can either
be a fixed size one or it may have a sense of dynamic resizing. Here, we are going to implement stack
using arrays, which makes it a fixed size stack implementation.

Basic Operations
Stack operations may involve initializing the stack, using it and then de-initializing it. Apart from
these basic stuffs, a stack is used for the following two primary operations −
 push() − Pushing (storing) an element on the stack.
 pop() − Removing (accessing) an element from the stack.
When data is PUSHed onto stack.
To use a stack efficiently, we need to check the status of stack as well. For the same purpose, the
following functionality is added to stacks −
 peek() − get the top data element of the stack, without removing it.
 isFull() − check if stack is full.
 isEmpty() − check if stack is empty.

At all times, we maintain a pointer to the last PUSHed data on the stack. As this pointer always
represents the top of the stack, hence named top. The top pointer provides top value of the stack
without removing it.
First, we should learn about procedures to support stack functions –
peek()
Algorithm of peek() function −
begin procedure peek
return stack[top]
end procedure

Implementation of peek() function in C programming language −

Example

int peek() {
return stack[top];
}
isfull()
Algorithm of isfull() function −

begin procedure isfull

if top equals to MAXSIZE

return true
else
return false
endif

end procedure

Implementation of isfull() function in C programming language −

Example

bool isfull() {
if(top == MAXSIZE)
return true;
else
return false;
}
isempty()
Algorithm of isempty() function −

begin procedure isempty

if top less than 1

return true
else
return false
endif

end procedure
Implementation of isempty() function in C programming language is slightly different. We initialize
top at -1, as the index in array starts from 0. So we check if the top is below zero or
-1 to determine if the stack is empty. Here's the code −
Example
bool isempty() {
if(top == -1)
return true;
else
return false;
}

Push Operation
The process of putting a new data element onto stack is known as a Push Operation. Push
operation involves a series of steps −
 Step 1 − Checks if the stack is full.
 Step 2 − If the stack is full, produces an error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the stack is not full, increments top to point next empty space.
 Step 4 − Adds data element to the stack location, where top is pointing.
 Step 5 − Returns success.

If the linked list is used to implement the stack, then in step 3, we need to allocate space
dynamically.

Algorithm for PUSH Operation

A simple algorithm for Push operation can be derived as follows −

begin procedure push: stack, data

if stack is full
return null
endif

top ← top + 1
stack[top] ← data

end procedure

Implementation of this algorithm in C, is very easy. See the following code −

Example
void push(int data) {
if(!isFull()) {
top = top + 1;
stack[top] = data;
} else {
printf("Could not insert data, Stack is full.\n");
}
}

Pop Operation
Accessing the content while removing it from the stack, is known as a Pop Operation. In an array
implementation of pop() operation, the data element is not actually removed, instead top is
decremented to a lower position in the stack to point to the next value. But in linked-list
implementation, pop() actually removes data element and deallocates memory space.
A Pop operation may involve the following steps −
 Step 1 − Checks if the stack is empty.
 Step 2 − If the stack is empty, produces an error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the stack is not empty, accesses the data element at which top is pointing.
 Step 4 − Decreases the value of top by 1.
 Step 5 − Returns success.

Algorithm for Pop Operation

A simple algorithm for Pop operation can be derived as follows −

begin procedure pop: stack

if stack is empty
return null
endif

data ← stack[top]
top ← top - 1
return data

end procedure
Implementation of this algorithm in C, is as follows −
Example

int pop(int data) {

if(!isempty()) {
data = stack[top];
top = top - 1;
return data;
} else {
printf("Could not retrieve data, Stack is empty.\n");
}
}

Queue ADT:
Queue is an abstract data structure, somewhat like Stacks. Unlike stacks, a queue is open at both its
ends. One end is always used to insert data (enqueue) and the other is used to remove data (dequeue).
Queue follows First-In-First-Out methodology, i.e., the data item stored first will be accessed first.

A real-world example of queue can be a single-lane one-way road, where the vehicle enters first, exits
first. More real-world examples can be seen as queues at the ticket windows and bus-stops.

Queue Representation
As we now understand that in queue, we access both ends for different reasons. The following
diagram given below tries to explain queue representation as data structure −

As in stacks, a queue can also be implemented using Arrays, Linked-lists, Pointers and Structures. For
the sake of simplicity, we shall implement queues using one-dimensional array.
Basic Operations
Queue operations may involve initializing or defining the queue, utilizing it, and then completely
erasing it from the memory. Here we shall try to understand the basic operations associated with
queues −
 enqueue() − add (store) an item to the queue.
 dequeue() − remove (access) an item from the queue.
Few more functions are required to make the above-mentioned queue operation efficient. These
are −
peek() − Gets the element at the front of the queue without removing it.
isfull() − Checks if the queue is full.
isempty() − Checks if the queue is empty.
In queue, we always dequeue (or access) data, pointed by front pointer and while enqueing (or
storing) data in the queue we take help of rear pointer.
Let's first learn about supportive functions of a queue −
peek()
This function helps to see the data at the front of the queue. The algorithm of peek() function is as
follows −
Algorithm
begin procedure peek
return queue[front]
end procedure
Implementation of peek() function in C programming language −
Example

int peek() {
return queue[front];
}

isfull()
As we are using single dimension array to implement queue, we just check for the rear pointer to
reach at MAXSIZE to determine that the queue is full. In case we maintain the queue in a circular
linked-list, the algorithm will differ. Algorithm of isfull() function −
Algorithm

begin procedure isfull

if rear equals to MAXSIZE

return true
else
return false
endif

end procedure
Implementation of isfull() function in C programming language −
Example

bool isfull() {
if(rear == MAXSIZE - 1)
return true;
else
return false;
}
isempty()
Algorithm of isempty() function −
Algorithm

begin procedure isempty

if front is less than MIN OR front is greater than rear

return true
else
return false
endif

end procedure
If the value of front is less than MIN or 0, it tells that the queue is not yet initialized, hence empty.
Example

bool isempty() {
if(front < 0 || front > rear)
return true;
else
return false;
}
Enqueue Operation
Queues maintain two data pointers, front and rear. Therefore, its operations are
comparatively difficult to implement than that of stacks.
The following steps should be taken to enqueue (insert) data into a queue −
 Step 1 − Check if the queue is full.
 Step 2 − If the queue is full, produce overflow error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the queue is not full, increment rear pointer to point the next empty space.
 Step 4 − Add data element to the queue location, where the rear is pointing.
 Step 5 − return success.

Sometimes, we also check to see if a queue is initialized or not, to handle any unforeseen
situations.
Algorithm for enqueue operation

procedure enqueue(data)

if queue is full
return overflow
endif

rear ← rear + 1
queue[rear] ← data
return true

end procedure
Implementation of enqueue() in C programming language −
Example
int enqueue(int data)
if(isfull())
return 0;

rear = rear + 1;
queue[rear] = data;
return 1;
end procedure
Dequeue Operation
Accessing data from the queue is a process of two tasks − access the data where front is pointing and
remove the data after access. The following steps are taken to perform dequeue operation −
 Step 1 − Check if the queue is empty.
 Step 2 − If the queue is empty, produce underflow error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the queue is not empty, access the data where front is pointing.
 Step 4 − Increment front pointer to point to the next available data element.
 Step 5 − Return success.

Algorithm for dequeue operation

procedure dequeue

if queue is empty
return underflow
end if

data = queue[front]
front ← front + 1
return true

end procedure

Implementation of dequeue() in C programming language −

Example
int dequeue() {
if(isempty())
return 0;

int data = queue[front];

front = front + 1;

return data;
}

Expression Parsing
The way to write arithmetic expression is known as a notation. An arithmetic expression can be
written in three different but equivalent notations, i.e., without changing the essence or output of an
expression. These notations are −

 Infix Notation

 Prefix (Polish) Notation

 Postfix (Reverse-Polish) Notation

These notations are named as how they use operator in expression. We shall learn the same here in
this chapter.
Infix Notation
We write expression in infix notation, e.g. a - b + c, where operators are used in-between operands. It
is easy for us humans to read, write, and speak in infix notation but the same does not go well with
computing devices. An algorithm to process infix notation could be difficult and costly in terms of
time and space consumption.
Prefix Notation
In this notation, operator is prefixed to operands, i.e. operator is written ahead of operands. For
example, +ab. This is equivalent to its infix notation a + b. Prefix notation is also known as Polish
Notation.
Postfix Notation
This notation style is known as Reversed Polish Notation. In this notation style, the operator is
postfixed to the operands i.e., the operator is written after the operands. For example, ab+. This is
equivalent to its infix notation a + b.
The following table briefly tries to show the difference in all three notations −

[Link]. Infix Notation Prefix Notation Postfix Notation

1 a+b +ab ab+
2 (a + b) ∗ c ∗+abc ab+c∗
3 a ∗ (b + c) ∗a+bc abc+∗
4 a/b+c/d +/ab/cd ab/cd/+
5 (a + b) ∗ (c + d) ∗+ab+cd ab+cd+∗
6 ((a + b) ∗ c) - d -∗+abcd ab+c∗d-
Parsing Expressions
As we have discussed, it is not a very efficient way to design an algorithm or program to parse infix
notations. Instead, these infix notations are first converted into either postfix or prefix notations and
then computed.
To parse any arithmetic expression, we need to take care of operator precedence and associativity
also.
Precedence
When an operand is in between two different operators, which operator will take the operand first, is
decided by the precedence of an operator over others. For example −

As multiplication operation has precedence over addition, b * c will be evaluated first. A table of
operator precedence is provided later.
Associativity
Associativity describes the rule where operators with the same precedence appear in an expression.
For example, in expression a + b − c, both + and – have the same precedence, then which part of the
expression will be evaluated first, is determined by associativity of those operators. Here, both + and
− are left associative, so the expression will be evaluated as (a + b) − c.
Precedence and associativity determine the order of evaluation of an expression. Following is an
operator precedence and associativity table (highest to lowest) −

[Link]. Operator Precedence Associativity

1 Exponentiation ^ Highest Right Associative

2 Multiplication ( ∗ ) & Division ( / ) Second Highest Left Associative

3 Addition ( + ) & Subtraction ( − ) Lowest Left Associative

The above table shows the default behavior of operators. At any point of time in expression
evaluation, the order can be altered by using parenthesis. For example −
In a + b*c, the expression part b*c will be evaluated first, with multiplication as precedence over
addition. We here use parenthesis for a + b to be evaluated first, like (a + b)*c.

Postfix Evaluation Algorithm

We shall now look at the algorithm on how to evaluate postfix notation −
Step 1 − scan the expression from left to right.
Step 2 − if it is an operand push it to stack.
Step 3 − if it is an operator pull operand from stack and perform operation.
Step 4 − store the output of step 3, back to stack.
Step 5 − scan the expression until all operands are consumed.
Step 6 − pop the stack and perform operation.

Implementation Of Stack and Queue Using Linked List

we will be discussing two data structures - Stack and Queue. We will discuss various I/O operations
on these data structures and their implementation using another data structure, i.e., Linked List.
What is Stack?

A Stack is a linear data structure which allows adding and removing of elements in a particular order.
New elements are added at the top of Stack. If we want to remove an element from the Stack, we can
only remove the top element from Stack. Since it allows insertion and deletion from only one end and
the element to be inserted last will be the element to be deleted first, hence it is called Last in First
Out data structure (LIFO).

Here we will define three operations on Stack,

 Push - it specifies adding an element to the Stack. If we try to insert an element when
the Stack is full, then it is said to be Stack Overflow condition.
 Pop - it specifies removing an element from the Stack. Elements are always removed
from top of Stack. If we try to perform pop operation on an empty Stack, then it is said
to be Stack Underflow condition.
 Peek - it will show the element on the top of Stack (without removing it).

What is Queue?

A Queue is also a linear data structure where insertions and deletions are performed from two
different ends. A new element is added from the rear of Queue and deletion of existing element occurs
from the front. Since we can access elements from both ends and the element inserted first will be the
one to be deleted first, hence Queue is called First in First Out data structure (FIFO).

Here, we will define two operations on Queue.

 Enqueue - It specifies the insertion of a new element to the Queue. Enqueue will always
take place from the rear end of the Queue.
 Dequeue - It specifies the deletion of an existing element from the Queue.
Dequeue will always take place from the front end of the Queue.

Uses of Queue
 CPU scheduling in Operating system uses Queue. The processes ready to execute and
the requests of CPU resources wait in a queue and the request is served on first come
first serve basis.
 Data buffer - a physical memory storage which is used to temporarily store data while it
is being moved from one place to another is also implemented using Queue.
Implementation of Circular Queue

What is a Circular Queue?

A Circular Queue is a special version of queue where the last element of the queue is connected to
the first element of the queue forming a circle.

The operations are performed based on FIFO (First In First Out) principle. It is also called ‘Ring
Buffer’.

In a normal Queue, we can insert elements until queue becomes full. But once queue
becomes full, we cannot insert the next element even if there is a space in front of queue.

Operations on Circular Queue:

 Front: Get the front item from queue.

 Rear: Get the last item from queue.

 enQueue(value) This function is used to insert an element into the circular queue.
In a circular queue, the new element is always inserted at Rear position.

1. Check whether queue is Full – Check ((rear == SIZE-1 && front == 0) ||

(rear == front-1)).
2. If it is full then display Queue is full. If queue is not full then, check if
(rear == SIZE – 1 && front != 0) if it is true then set rear=0 and insert
element.
  deQueue() This function is used to delete an element from the circular queue. In a
circular queue, the element is always deleted from front position.
1. Check whether queue is Empty means check (front==-1).
2. If it is empty then display Queue is empty. If queue is not empty then step 3
3. Check if (front==rear) if it is true then set front=rear= -1 else check if
(front==size-1), if it is true then set front=0 and return the element.

Steps to implement Circular Queue using Array:

1. Initialize an array queue of size n, where n is the maximum number of elements that the
queue can hold.
2. Initialize two variables front and rear to -1.
3. To enqueue an element x onto the queue, do the following:
 Increment rear by 1.
 If rear is equal to n, set rear to 0.
 If front is -1, set front to 0.
 Set queue[rear] to x.
4. To dequeue an element from the queue, do the following:
 Check if the queue is empty by checking if front is -1. If it is, return an error
message indicating that the queue is empty.
 Set x to queue[front].
 If front is equal to rear, set front and rear to -1.
 Otherwise, increment front by 1 and if front is equal to n, set front to 0.
 Return x.

Applications:

1. Memory Management: The unused memory locations in the case of ordinary

queues can be utilized in circular queues.
2. Traffic system: In computer-controlled traffic system, circular queues are used to
switch on the traffic lights one by one repeatedly as per the time set.
3. CPU Scheduling: Operating systems often maintain a queue of processes that are
ready to execute or that are waiting for a particular event to occur.

Application of Stack:

Expression Evaluation:
While reading the expression from left to right, push the element in the stack if it is an operand. Pop
the two operands from the stack, if the element is an operator and then evaluate it. Push back the
result of the evaluation. Repeat it till the end of the expression.

Expression Conversion:
One of the applications of Stack is in the conversion of arithmetic expressions in high-level
programming languages into machine readable form. An expression can be represented in infix,
postfix and prefix and stack proves to be useful while converting one form to another.

Syntax Parsing:
Conversion from one form of the expression to another form needs a stack. Many compilers use a
stack for parsing the syntax of expressions, program blocks etc. before translating into low level code.

Parenthesis Checking:
One of the most important applications of stacks is to check if the parentheses are balanced in each
expression. The compiler generates an error if the parentheses are not matched.

String Reversal:
Reversing string is an operation of Stack by using it we can reverse any string.

Function Call:
The function call stack (often referred to just as the call stack or the stack) is responsible for
maintaining the local variables and parameters during function execution.

Expression Evaluation
Evaluate an expression represented by a String. The expression can contain parentheses, you can
assume parentheses are well-matched. For simplicity, you can assume only binary operations allowed
are +, -, *, and /. Arithmetic Expressions can be written in one of three forms:
 Infix Notation: Operators are written between the operands they operate on, e.g., 3 +
4.
 Prefix Notation: Operators are written before the operands, e.g., + 3 4.
 Postfix Notation: Operators are written after operands.

Infix Expressions are harder for Computers to evaluate because of the additional work
needed to decide precedence. Infix notation is how expressions are written and recognized
by humans and, generally, input to programs. Given that they are harder to evaluate, they
are generally converted to one of the two remaining forms.
This algorithm takes as input an Infix Expression and produces a queue that has this
expression converted to postfix notation. The same algorithm can be modified so that it
outputs the result of the evaluation of expression instead of a queue. The trick is using two
stacks instead of one, one for operands, and one for operators.

Write down the algorithm to convert infix notation into postfix.

OR
Write down the algorithm to evaluate the infix expression.

Algorithm for Infix To Postfix Conversion:

1. Create an empty stack and an empty postfix output string/stream.

2. Scan the infix input string/stream left to right.
3. If the current input token is an operand, simply append it to the output string (note the
examples above that the operands remain in the same order)
4. If the current input token is an operator, pop off all operators that have equal or higher
precedence and append them to the output string; push the operator onto the
stack. The order of popping is the order in the output.
5. If the current input token is '(', push it onto the stack
6. If the current input token is ')', pop off all operators and append them to the output
string until a '(' is popped; discard the '('.
7. If the end of the input string is found, pop all operators, and append them to the output
string.
Convert following infix expression into postfix expression A + (B*C + D)/E.

Consider the following infix expression a convert into reverse polish notation using stack.

Expression=A + (B*C - (D/E ^ F) * H)

Write down the algorithm to evaluate the postfix expression. OR
Write down the algorithm to convert postfix to infix.
Postfix: If an operator appears before operand in the expression, then expression is known as Postfix
operation.
Infix: If an operator is in between every pair of operands in the expression then expression is known as
Infix operation.
Algorithm to Convert Expression from Postfix to Infix:

1. If a character is operand, push it to stack.

2. If a character is an operator,
3. pop operand from the stack, say it’s s1.
4. pop operand from the stack, say it’s s2.
5. perform (s2 operator s1) and push it to stack.
6. Once the expression iteration is completed, initialize the result string, and pop out from
the stack and add it to the result.
7. Return the result.

Consider the following arithmetic expression written in infix notation:

i) E = (A + B) * C + D / (B + A * C) + D
ii) E =A/ B ^ C + D * E -A* C
Convert the above expression into postfix and prefix notation.

i) Postfix Expression:
Recursion
What is Recursion?

The process in which a function calls itself directly or indirectly is called recursion and the
corresponding function is called a recursive function. Using a recursive algorithm, certain problems
can be solved quite easily. Examples of such problems are Towers of Hanoi (TOH),
Inorder/Preorder/Postorder Tree Traversals, DFS of Graph, etc. A recursive function solves a
particular problem by calling a copy of itself and solving smaller subproblems of the original
problems. Many more recursive calls can be generated as and when required. It is essential to know
that we should provide a certain case in order to terminate this recursion process. So, we can say that
every time the function calls itself with a simpler version of the original problem.

Need of Recursion

Recursion is an amazing technique with the help of which we can reduce the length of our code and
make it easier to read and write. It has certain advantages over the iteration technique which will be
discussed later. A task that can be defined with its similar subtask, recursion is one of the best
solutions for it. For example, The Factorial of a number.
Properties of Recursion:

 Performing the same operations multiple times with different inputs.

 In every step, we try smaller inputs to make the problem smaller.
 Base condition is needed to stop the recursion otherwise infinite loop will occur.

Algorithm: Steps
The algorithmic steps for implementing recursion in a function are as follows:

Step1 - Define a base case: Identify the simplest case for which the solution is known or
trivial. This is the stopping condition for the recursion, as it prevents the function from
infinitely calling itself.

Step2 - Define a recursive case: Define the problem in terms of smaller subproblems. Break
the problem down into smaller versions of itself and call the function recursively to solve
each subproblem.

Step3 - Ensure the recursion terminates: Make sure that the recursive function eventually
reaches the base case and does not enter an infinite loop.

Step4 - Combine the solutions: Combine the solutions of the subproblems to solve the
original problem.

A Mathematical Interpretation
Let us consider a problem that a programmer must determine the sum of first n natural numbers, there are
several ways of doing that, but the simplest approach is simply to add the numbers starting from 1 to n.
So, the function simply looks like this,
approach (1) – Simply adding one by
one. f(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 +… + n

but there is another mathematical approach of representing this,

approach (2) – Recursive
adding f(n) = 1 n=1
f(n) = n + f(n-1) n>1
There is a simple difference between the approach (1) and approach(2) and that is in
approach(2) the function “ f( ) ” itself is being called inside the function, so this phenomenon is
named recursion, and the function containing recursion is called recursive function, at the end, this is a
great tool in the hand of the programmers to code some problems in a lot easier and efficient way.

How are recursive functions stored in memory?

Recursion uses more memory, because the recursive function adds to the stack with each recursive
call and keeps the values there until the call is finished. The recursive function uses LIFO
(LAST IN FIRST OUT) Structure just like the stack data structure.
What is the base condition in recursion?
In the recursive program, the solution to the base case is provided and the solution to the bigger
problem is expressed in terms of smaller problems.

int fact(int n)
{
if (n < = 1) // base case
return 1;
else
return n*fact(n-1);
}
In the above example, the base case for n < = 1 is defined and the larger value of a number can be
solved by converting to a smaller one till the base case is reached.
How is a particular problem solved using recursion?
The idea is to represent a problem in terms of one or more smaller problems and add one or more
base conditions that stop the recursion. For example, we compute factorial n if we know the factorial
of (n-1). The base case for factorial would be n = 0. We return 1 when n= 0.

Why Stack Overflow error occurs in recursion?

If the base case is not reached or not defined, then the stack overflow problem may arise. Let us
take an example to understand this.

int fact(int n)
{
// wrong base case (it may cause
// stack overflow). if
(n == 100)
return 1;

else
return n*fact(n-1);
}
If fact(10) is called, it will call fact(9), fact(8), fact(7), and so on but the number will never reach 100.
So, the base case is not reached. If the memory is exhausted by these functions on the stack, it will
cause a stack overflow error.

What is the difference between direct and indirect recursion?

A function fun is called direct recursive if it calls the same function fun. A function fun is called
indirect recursive if it calls another function say fun_new and fun_new calls fun directly or
indirectly.
How is memory allocated to different function calls in recursion?
When any function is called from main(), the memory is allocated to it on the stack. A recursive
function calls itself, the memory for a called function is allocated on top of memory allocated to the
calling function and a different copy of local variables is created for each function call. When the
base case is reached, the function returns its value to the function by whom it is called, and memory
is de-allocated and the process continues.

When printFun(3) is called from main(), memory is allocated to printFun(3) and a local variable
test is initialized to 3 and statement 1 to 4 are pushed on the stack as shown in below diagram.
It first prints ‘3’. In statement 2, printFun(2) is called and memory is allocated to printFun(2) and a
local variable test is initialized to 2 and statement 1 to 4 are pushed into the stack.

Similarly, printFun(2) calls printFun(1) and printFun(1) calls printFun(0). printFun(0) goes to
if statement and it return to printFun(1). The remaining statements of printFun(1)
are executed and it returns to printFun(2) and so on. In the output, values from 3 to 1 are printed and
then 1 to 3 are printed. The memory stack has been shown in below diagram.

Recursion VS Iteration

SR No. Recursion Iteration

1) Terminates when the condition becomes

Terminates when the base case becomes true.
false.

2) Used with functions. Used with loops.

Every recursive call needs extra space in the Every iteration does not require any extra
3) stack memory. space.

4) Smaller code size. Larger code size.

Recursion is a powerful technique that has many applications in computer science and programming.
Here are some of the common applications of recursion:
 Tree and graph traversal: Recursion is frequently used for traversing and searching data
structures such as trees and graphs. Recursive algorithms can be used to explore all the
nodes or vertices of a tree or graph in a systematic way.
 Sorting algorithms: Recursive algorithms are also used in sorting algorithms such as
quicksort and merge sort. These algorithms use recursion to divide the data into smaller
subarrays or sub lists, sort them, and then merge them back together.
 Divide-and-conquer algorithms: Many algorithms that use a divide-and- conquer
approach, such as the binary search algorithm, use recursion to break down the problem
into smaller subproblems.
 Fractal generation: Fractal shapes and patterns can be generated using recursive
algorithms. For example, the Mandelbrot set is generated by repeatedly applying a
recursive formula to complex numbers.
 Backtracking algorithms: Backtracking algorithms are used to solve problems that
involve making a sequence of decisions, where each decision depends on the previous
ones. These algorithms can be implemented using recursion to explore all possible paths
and backtrack when a solution is not found.
 Memoization: Memoization is a technique that involves storing the results of expensive
function calls and returning the cached result when the same inputs occur again.
Memoization can be implemented using recursive functions to compute and cache the
results of subproblems.

What are the disadvantages of recursive programming over iterative programming?

Note that both recursive and iterative programs have the same problem-solving powers, i.e., every
recursive program can be written iteratively and vice versa is also true. The recursive program has
greater space requirements than the iterative program as all functions will remain in the stack until the
base case is reached. It also has greater time requirements because of function calls and returns
overhead.
Moreover, due to the smaller length of code, the codes are difficult to understand, and hence
extra care must be practiced while writing the code. The computer may run out of memory if the
recursive calls are not properly checked.
What are the advantages of recursive programming over iterative programming?

Recursion provides a clean and simple way to write code. Some problems are inherently recursive
like tree traversals, Tower of Hanoi, etc. For such problems, it is preferred to write recursive
code. We can write such codes also iteratively with the help of a stack data structure. For example,
refer Inorder Tree Traversal without Recursion, Iterative Tower of Hanoi.

Summary of Recursion:

 There are two types of cases in recursion i.e., recursive case and a base case.
 The base case is used to terminate the recursive function when the case turns out to be
true.
 Each recursive call makes a new copy of that method in the stack memory.
 Infinite recursion may lead to running out of stack memory.
 Examples of Recursive algorithms: Merge Sort, Quick Sort, Tower of Hanoi,
Fibonacci Series, Factorial Problem, etc.
Priority Queue
A priority queue is a type of queue that arranges elements based on their priority values. Elements
with higher priority values are typically retrieved before elements with lower priority values.
In a priority queue, each element has a priority value associated with it. When you add an element to
the queue, it is inserted in a position based on its priority value. For example, if you add an element
with a high priority value to a priority queue, it may be inserted near the front of the queue, while
an element with a low priority value may be inserted near the back.
There are several ways to implement a priority queue, including using an array, linked list, heap, or
binary search tree. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the best choice will
depend on the specific needs of your application.
Priority queues are often used in real-time systems, where the order in which elements are processed
can have significant consequences. They are also used in algorithms to improve their efficiencies,
such as Dijkstra’s algorithm for finding the shortest path in a graph and the A* search algorithm for
pathfinding.

Properties of Priority Queue

So, a priority Queue is an extension of the queue with the following properties.
 Every item has a priority associated with it.
 An element with high priority is dequeued before an element with low priority.
 If two elements have the same priority, they are served according to their order in the
queue.
In the below priority queue, an element with a maximum ASCII value will have the highest priority.
The elements with higher priority are served first.

How is Priority assigned to the elements in a Priority Queue?

In a priority queue, generally, the value of an element is considered for assigning the
priority.
For example, the element with the highest value is assigned the highest priority and the
element with the lowest value is assigned the lowest priority. The reverse case can also be
used i.e., the element with the lowest value can be assigned the highest priority. Also, the
priority can be assigned according to our needs.

Operations of a Priority Queue:

A typical priority queue supports the following operations:
1) Insertion in a Priority Queue
When a new element is inserted in a priority queue, it moves to the empty slot from top to
bottom and left to right. However, if the element is not in the correct place, then it will be
compared with the parent node. If the element is not in the correct order, the elements are
swapped. The swapping process continues until all the elements are placed in the correct
position.
2) Deletion in a Priority Queue
As you know that in a max heap, the maximum element is the root node. And it will remove
the element which has maximum priority first. Thus, you remove the root node from the
queue. This removal creates an empty slot, which will be further filled with new
insertion. Then, it compares the newly inserted element with all the elements inside the queue
to maintain the heap invariant.
3) Peek in a Priority Queue
This operation helps to return the maximum element from Max Heap or the minimum
element from Min Heap without deleting the node from the priority queue.
Types of Priority Queue:

1) Ascending Order Priority Queue

As the name suggests, in ascending order priority queue, the element with a lower priority
value is given a higher priority in the priority list. For example, if we have the following
elements in a priority queue arranged in ascending order like 4,6,8,9,10. Here, 4 is the
smallest number, therefore, it will get the highest priority in a priority queue and so when
we dequeue from this type of priority queue, 4 will remove from the queue and dequeue
returns 4.
2) Descending order Priority Queue
The root node is the maximum element in a max heap, as you may know. It will also remove
the element with the highest priority first. As a result, the root node is removed from the
queue. This deletion leaves an empty space, which will be filled with fresh insertions in the
future. The heap invariant is then maintained by comparing the newly inserted element to all
other entries in the queue.

Difference between Priority Queue and Normal Queue?

There is no priority attached to elements in a queue, the rule of first-in-first-out(FIFO) is implemented
whereas, in a priority queue, the elements have a priority. The elements with higher priority are served
first.

Implement Priority Queue Using Heaps:

Binary Heap is generally preferred for priority queue implementation because heaps provide
better performance compared to arrays or LinkedList. Considering the properties of a heap, The
entry with the largest key is on the top and can be removed immediately. It will, however, take
time O(log n) to restore the heap property for the remaining keys. However if another entry is to be
inserted immediately, then some of this time may be combined with the O(log n) time needed to insert
the new entry. Thus, the representation of a priority queue as a heap proves advantageous for large n,
since it is represented efficiently in contiguous storage and is guaranteed to require only logarithmic
time for both insertions and deletions. Operations on Binary Heap are as follows:
 insert(p): Inserts a new element with priority p.
 extractMax(): Extracts an element with maximum priority.
 remove(i): Removes an element pointed by an iterator i.
 getMax(): Returns an element with maximum priority.
 changePriority(i, p): Changes the priority of an element pointed by i to p.

Binary Heap insert() remove() peek()

Time Complexity O(log n) O(log n) O(1)
Implement Priority Queue Using Binary Search Tree:

A Self-Balancing Binary Search Tree like AVL Tree, Red-Black Tree, etc. can also be used to
implement a priority queue. Operations like peek(), insert() and delete() can be performed using
BST.

Binary Search Tree peek() insert() delete()

Time Complexity O(1) O(log n) O(log n)

Applications of Priority Queue:

 CPU Scheduling
 Graph algorithms like Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm, Prim’s Minimum
Spanning Tree, etc.
 Stack Implementation
 All queue applications where priority is involved.
 Data compression in Huffman code
 Event-driven simulation such as customers waiting in a queue.
 Finding Kth largest/smallest element.

Advantages of Priority Queue:

 It helps to access the elements in a faster way. This is because elements in a priority
queue are ordered by priority, one can easily retrieve the highest priority element without
having to search through the entire queue.
 The ordering of elements in a Priority Queue is done dynamically. Elements in a priority
queue can have their priority values updated, which allows the queue to dynamically
reorder itself as priorities change.
 Efficient algorithms can be implemented. Priority queues are used in many algorithms to
improve their efficiency, such as Dijkstra’s algorithm for finding the shortest path in a
graph and the A* search algorithm for pathfinding.
 Included in real-time systems. This is because priority queues allow you to quickly
retrieve the highest priority element, they are often used in real-time systems where time
is of the essence.

Disadvantages of Priority Queue:

 High complexity. Priority queues are more complex than simple data structures like
arrays and linked lists and may be more difficult to implement and maintain.
 High consumption of memory. Storing the priority value for each element in a priority
queue can take up additional memory, which may be a concern in systems with limited
resources.
 It is not always the most efficient data structure. In some cases, other data structures like
heaps or binary search trees may be more efficient for certain operations, such as finding
the minimum or maximum element in the queue.
 At times it is less predictable: This is because the order of elements in a priority queue is
determined by their priority values, the order in which elements are retrieved may be less
predictable than with other data structures like stacks or queues, which follow a first-in,
first-out (FIFO) or last-in, first-out (LIFO) order.