MODULE—III

Network devices—
REPEATERS--
A repeater receives the signal and it regenerates the signal in original bit pattern
before the signal gets too weak or corrupted.
It is used to extend the physical distance of LAN.
Repeater works on physical layer.
A repeater has no filtering capability.
A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the
network, repropagate a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes.
Repeaters amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is
reusable, scalable and available.
Repeaters are also known as signal boosters or range extender.

A repeater cannot connect two LANs, but it connects two segments of the same LAN.
HUBS--
Several networks need a central location to connect media segments together. These
central locations are called as hubs.
The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to the other media

segments.

The three types of hubs are:

Passive hub
It is a connector, which connects wires coming from the different branches.
By using passive hub, each computer can receive the signal which is sent from all
other computers connected in the hub.
Active Hub
It is a multiport repeater, which can regenerate the signal.
It is used to create connections between two or more stations in a physical star
topology.
Intelligent Hub
Intelligent hub contains a program of network management and intelligent path
selection.
BRIDGES--
Bridges operate in physical layer as well as data link layer.
As a physical layer device, they regenerate the receive signal.
As a data link layer, the bridge checks the physical (MAC) address (of the source and
the destination) contained in the frame.
The bridge has a filtering feature.
It can check the destination address of a frame and decides, if the frame should be
forwarded or dropped.
Bridges are used to connect two or LANs working on the same protocol.

Types of Bridges :
Transparent Bridges
These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network ,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
Source Routing Bridges
In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow.
Translation Bridges
These bridges connect networks with different architectures, such as Ethernet and
Token Ring. These bridges appear as: Transparent bridges to an Ethernet host and
Source-routing bridges to a Token Ring host

Learning bridge--
A learning bridge has all the capabilities of a basic bridge, but it has one advantage. A learning
bridge reduces (to some degree) the amount of broadcast traffic on the LANs. A learning bridge
listens to all frames in the two LAN segments just as a basic bridge does and learns where each
physical address is located. The learning bridge makes a list of the physical addresses and which
port they are connected to. Because it stores each frame as it receives it, it then forwards frames
selectively based on the LAN to which that physical address is located. Whenever the learning
bridge encounters a frame containing a physical address it does not know, it forwards that frame
out all other ports to the other LANs.
Spanning tree bridges--
Spanning tree bridges are switches in a network that use the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to
prevent network loops by creating a loop-free, tree-like logical topology. STP works by electing
a single root bridge and then designating specific ports on bridges as root ports (forwarding to
the root) and blocking redundant links to create a single, active path between any two points in
the network. This prevents broadcast storms and network congestion caused by loops.
SWITCHES
A switch is a small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers
together with one local area network (LAN).
A switch is a mechanism that allows us to interconnect links to form a large network.

Switch is data link layer device.

A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer .
Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
It is operated in full duplex mode.
Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and
destination.
It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
A switch’s primary job is to receive incoming packets on one of its links and to transmit them
on some other link.
A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed.

51
Input ports receive stream of packets, analyzes the header, determines the
output port and passes the packet onto the fabric.
Ports contain buffers to hold packets before it is forwarded.
If buffer space is unavailable, then packets are dropped.
If packets at several input ports queue for a single output port, then only
one of them is forwarded.
Types of Switch
Two- Layer Switch
The two-layer switch performs at the physical and the data link layer.
It is a bridge with many ports and design allows faster performs.
A bridge is used to connect different LANs together.
The two- layer switch can make a filtering decision bases on the MAC
address of the received frame. However, two- layer switch has a buffer
which holds the frame for processing.
Three- Layer Switch
The three-layer switch is a router.
The switching fabric in a three-layer allows a faster table lookup and
forwarding mechanism.

ROUTERS--
A router is a three-layer device.
It operates in the physical, data-link, and network layers.
As a physical-layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
As a link-layer device, the router checks the physical addresses (source
and destination) contained in the packet.
As a network-layer device, a router checks the network-layer addresses.
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their
IP addresses.
A router can connect networks. A router connects the LANs and WANs
on the internet.
A router is an internetworking device.
It connects independent networks to form an internetwork.

The key function of the router is to determine the shortest path to the
destination.
Router has a routing table, which is used to make decision on selecting
the route.
The routing table is updated dynamically based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets.
GATEWAY--
A gateway is a device, which operates in all five layers of the internet
or seven layers of OSI model.
It is usually a combination of hardware and software.

Gateway connects two independent networks.

Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
Gateways basically works as the messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters
A gateway accepts a packet formatted for one protocol and converts it to
a packet formatted to another protocol before forwarding it.
The gateway must adjust the data rate, size and data format.

Multiplexing in Communication Systems

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which
multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over
a single communication/physical line.

Uses of Multiplexing
Multiplexing is used for a variety of purposes in data communications to enhance
the efficiency and capacity of networks. Here are some of the main uses:
 Efficient Utilization of Resources: Multiplexing allows multiple signals
to share the same communication channel, making the most of the available
 bandwidth. This is especially important in environments where bandwidth
is limited.
 Telecommunications: In telephone networks, multiplexing enables the
simultaneous transmission of multiple telephone calls over a single line,
enhancing the capacity of the network.
 Internet and Data Networks: Multiplexing is used in internet
communications to transmit data from multiple users over a single network
line, improving the efficiency and speed of data transfer.
 Satellite Communications: Multiplexing helps in efficiently utilizing the
available bandwidth on satellite transponders, allowing multiple signals to
be transmitted and received simultaneously.
Types of Multiplexing
The below are the different types of multiplexing techniques, each designed to
handle various types of data and communication needs.
Types of Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the
bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.

Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk because in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to
prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed
between each channel. These unused strips between each channel are known
as guard bands.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing is multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing a
portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each
connection occupies a portion of time in the link. In Time Division Multiplexing,
all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth) at different times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
 Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM : Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are
grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots. Synchronous
TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot remains
empty in the output frame. In this, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the
beginning of each frame.
Statistical TDM: Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where
the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is full not leaving an
empty slot like in Synchronous TDM. In this, we need to include the address of
each particular data in the slot that is being sent to the output frame.

Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the

channel capacity is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to
increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each
signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals are
combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission.
At the receiving end, the signals are separated by their wavelengths,
demultiplexed and routed to their respective destinations. It is used in
telecommunications, cable TV, ISPs, and data centers for high-speed, long-
distance data transmission.
WDM
WDM can be divided into two categories:
  Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is used to multiplex a
large number of optical signals onto a single fiber, typically up to 80
channels with a spacing of 0.8 nm or less between the channels.
 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) is used for lower-
capacity applications, typically up to 18 channels with a spacing of 20 nm
between the channels.
Advantages over Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
 Higher data rates & capacity
 Lower power consumption
 Reduced equipment complexity
 Flexible & easily upgradable

The Network layer is majorly focused on getting packets from the source to the
destination, routing error handling, and congestion control. Before learning about
design issues in the network layer, let's learn about its various functions.
 Addressing: Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and
destination and performs addressing to detect various devices in the
network.
 Packeting: This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer
converts the packets from its upper layer.
 Routing: It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses
the most relevant and best path for the data transmission from source to
destination.
 Inter-networking: It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple
devices.
Network Layer Design Issues
The network layer comes with some design issues that are described as follows:
1. Store and Forward packet switching
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it
has fully arrived once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then
it is forwarded to the next router till it reaches the destination. This mechanism is
called "Store and Forward packet switching."
2. Services provided to the Transport Layer
Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer transfers
its patterns services to the transport layer. These services are described below.
But before providing these services to the transfer layer, the following goals must
be kept in mind:-
  Offering services must not depend on router technology.
 The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number, and
topology of the available router.
 The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform
numbering patterns, also at LAN and WAN connections.
Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided :
 Connectionless - The routing and insertion of packets into the subnet are
done individually. No added setup is required.
 Connection-Oriented - Subnet must offer reliable service and all the
packets must be transmitted over a single route.
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service
Packets are termed as "datagrams" and corresponding subnets as "datagram
subnets". When the message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size of
the packet, then the network layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet
to the router via. a few protocols. Each data packet has a destination address and
is routed independently irrespective of the packets.
4. Implementation of Connection-Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first, we establish a connection, use it, and
then release it. In connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to
the receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender. It can
be done in either two ways :
 Circuit Switched Connection - A dedicated physical path or a circuit is
established between the communicating nodes and then the data stream is
transferred.
 Virtual Circuit Switched Connection - The data stream is transferred
over a packet switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that
there is a dedicated path from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is
established here. While, other connections may also be using the same
path.
Connection-less vs Connection-Oriented--
Both Connection-less and Connection-Oriented are used for the connection
establishment between two or more devices. These types of services are provided
by the Network Layer.
Connection-oriented service: In connection-Oriented service we have to
establish a connection between sender and receiver before communication.
Handshske method is used to establish a connection between sender and receiver.
Connection-Oriented service include both connection establishment as well as
connection termination phase. Real life example of this service is telephone
service, for conversation we have to first establish a connection.

Connection-Oriented Service
Connection-less service: In Connection-Less service no need of connection
establishment and connection termination. This Service does not give a guarantee
of reliability. In this service, Packets may follow the different path to reach their
destination. Real life examples of this service is postal system, Online gaming,
real-time video and audio streaming etc.

Store − and − forward packet switching--

In telecommunications, store − and − forward packet switching is a technique
where the data packets are stored in each intermediate node, before they are
forwarded to the next node. The intermediate node checks whether the packet is
error−free before transmitting, thus ensuring integrity of the data packets. In
general, the network layer operates in an environment that uses store and forward
packet switching.
Working Principle-
The node which has a packet to send, delivers it to the nearest node, i.e. router.
The packet is stored in the router until it has fully arrived and its checksum is
verified for error detection. Once, this is done, the packet is transmitted to the
next router. The same process is continued in each router until the packet reaches
its destination.
The following scenario exemplifies the mechanism −
In the above diagram, we can see that the Internet Service Provider (ISP) has six
routers (A to F) connected by transmission lines shown in blue lines. There are
two hosts, host H1 is connected to router A, while host H2 is connected to router
D. Suppose that H1 wants to send a data packet to H2. H1 sends the packet to
router A. The packet is stored in router A until it has arrived fully. Router A
verifies the checksum using CRC (cyclic redundancy check) code. If there is a
CRC error, the packet is discarded, otherwise it is transmitted to the next hop,
here router F. The same process is followed by router F which then transmits the
packet to router D. Finally router D delivers the packet to host H2.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Store − and forward packet switching ensures high quality data packet
transmission. Since erroneous packets are discarded at each router, bad packets
or invalid packets in the network are mostly eliminated.
However, error − free packet transmission is achieved by compromising on the
overall speed of transmission. Switch latency is introduced due to waiting for
entire packet to arrive as well as computation of CRC. Though the latency at each
router may seem small enough, the cumulative latency at all routers make it
inappropriate for time − critical online applications.

Optimality principle--
The optimality principle in computer networks is stated as follows

Explanation-
The purpose of a routing algorithm at a router is to decide which output line an
incoming packet should go. The optimal path from a particular router to another
may be the least cost path, the least distance path, the least time path, the least
hops path or a combination of any of the above.
The optimality principle can be logically proved as follows
 If a better route could be found between router J and router K, the path
from router I to router K via J would be updated via this route. Thus, the
optimal path from J to K will again lie on the optimal path from I to K.
Example-
Consider a network of routers, {G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N} as shown in the figure.
Let the optimal route from I to K be as shown via the green path, i.e. via the route
I-G-J-L-K. According to the optimality principle, the optimal path from J to K
with be along the same route, i.e. J-L-K.

Now, suppose we find a better route from J to K is found, say along J-M-N-K.
Consequently, we will also need to update the optimal route from I to K as I-GJ-
M-N-K, since the previous route ceases to be optimal in this situation. This new
optimal path is shown line orange lines in the following figure

Circuit Switching--
Circuit Switching establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver before
communication, using the full network bandwidth. Data flows without delay, and
bit delay remains constant. While it guarantees a fixed data rate, it is costly and
inefficient for high-traffic or large networks due to reserved resources.
 Bandwidth is divided into pieces.
 Bit delay is constant during communication.
  Data can flow without delay once the circuit is established.

The telephone system network is one of the examples of Circuit switching. FDM
(Frequency Division Multiplexing) and TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) are
two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single carrier.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
 Divides total bandwidth into non-overlapping frequency bands.
 Each band carries a separate signal simultaneously.
 Used in radio, TV, and optical fiber for multiple independent signals.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
 Transmits multiple signals over the same channel at different time slots.
 Uses synchronized switches at both ends.
 Suitable for long-distance links with heavy data traffic.
 Also called a digital circuit switch
Phases of Circuit Switching
 Circuit Establishment: A dedicated circuit between the source and
destination is constructed via a number of intermediary switching center's.
Communication signals can be requested and received when the sender and
receiver communicate signals over the circuit.
 Data Transfer: Data can be transferred between the source and destination
once the circuit has been established. The link between the two parties
remains as long as they communicate.
 Circuit Disconnection: Disconnection in the circuit occurs when one of
the users initiates the disconnect. When the disconnection occurs, all
intermediary linkages between the sender and receiver are terminated.
Switching Used For--
 Continuous connections: Circuit switching is used for connections that
must be maintained for long periods, such as long-distance
 communication. Circuit switching technology is used in traditional
telephone systems.
 Dial-up network connections: When a computer connects to the internet
through a dial-up service, it uses the public switched network. Dial-up
transmits Internet Protocol (IP) data packets via a circuit-switched
telephone network.
 Optical circuit switching: Data centre networks also make use of circuit
switching. Optical circuit switching is used to expand traditional data
centres and fulfil increasing bandwidth demands.
Advantages of Circuit Switching
 Guaranteed data rate: Dedicated channel ensures consistent transmission
speed.
 No delay in data flow: Dedicated path allows continuous data transfer.
 High reliability: Reserved path prevents data loss or corruption.
 Quality of service (QoS): Supports prioritization of critical traffic like
voice or video.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
 Limited scalability: Not suitable for large networks; needs a dedicated
path for each communication.
 Vulnerable to failures: If a path fails, communication is disrupted.
 Limited flexibility: Dedicated circuits cannot be used by others until
communication ends.
 Wastes resources: Bandwidth is reserved even when no data is sent.
 High cost: Setting up and maintaining dedicated paths is expensive.

Packet Switching--
Packet Switching is a method of sending data in small units called packets, each
containing a header (control info) and payload. Packets travel independently
using the Store-and-Forward technique, possibly via different paths, and are
reassembled at the destination. No dedicated path or resource reservation is
needed, making data transfer efficient and flexible.
Types of Packet Switching--
Connection-oriented Packet Switching (Virtual Circuit)
Connection-oriented (Virtual Circuit) Packet Switching establishes a logical path
between sender and receiver before data transfer. All packets follow this
predefined route and are given sequence numbers to ensure they arrive in order.
Each connection is identified by a Virtual Circuit ID assigned by the network.
Connectionless Packet Switching (Datagram)
Connectionless (Datagram) Packet Switching treats each packet independently,
with all addressing and control information included. No connection setup is
needed, and packets may take different paths, possibly arriving out of order.
Reliability and data integrity are handled by higher-layer protocols like TCP,
providing flexibility and speed.
Advantages of Packet Switching
 More efficient bandwidth usage: There is no need to reserve a dedicated
path, which leads to better utilization of available bandwidth.
 Minimal transmission latency: Data can be transmitted as soon as it's
ready, without waiting for a complete path to be established.
 Higher reliability: The destination can detect missing packets and request
retransmission.
 Greater fault tolerance: If one link fails, packets can be rerouted through
alternative paths.
 Cost-effective: Packet switching networks are generally cheaper and easier
to implement and maintain.
Disadvantage of Packet Switching
 Unordered delivery: Packets may arrive out of sequence, while circuit
switching ensures ordered delivery since all data follows the same path.
 Need for sequence numbers: To reassemble data correctly, each packet
must carry a sequence number.
 Increased complexity at nodes: Each node must be capable of routing
packets dynamically, which adds to the complexity.
 Potential transmission delays: Rerouting and queuing can introduce
delays, especially under high network load.
 Less suitable for large, continuous data streams: While ideal for small
or burst data, packet switching can be less efficient for large, constant data
transmissions compared to circuit switching.
Flooding--
Flooding is a non-adaptive routing technique following this simple method: when
a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the outgoing links except the one
it has arrived on.
For example, let us consider the network in the figure, having six routers that are
connected through transmission lines.

Using flooding technique

 An incoming packet to A, will be sent to B, C and D.
 B will send the packet to C and E.
 C will send the packet to B, D and F.
 D will send the packet to C and F.
 E will send the packet to F.
 F will send the packet to C and E.
Flooding may be of three types--
 Uncontrolled flooding Here, each router unconditionally transmits the
incoming data packets to all its neighbours.
 Controlled flooding They use some methods to control the transmission
of packets to the neighbouring nodes. The two popular algorithms for
controlled flooding are Sequence Number Controlled Flooding (SNCF)
and Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF).
 Selective flooding Here, the routers don't transmit the incoming packets
only along those paths which are heading towards approximately in the
right direction, instead of every available paths.

Multicasting--
Multicasting in computer network is a group communication, where a sender(s)
send data to multiple receivers simultaneously. It supports one – to – many and
many – to – many data transmission across LANs or WANs. Through the process
of multicasting, the communication and processing overhead of sending the same
data packet or data frame in minimized.
Ethernet Multicast--
Ethernet multicast constitutes multicasting at the data link layer of the OSI model
for Ethernet networks. Ethernet frames for multicasting are identified by a 1 bit
in the LSB (least significant bit) of the first byte of the destination address.
IP Multicast--
IP multicast provides one-to-many communication over an IP network. The
destination nodes send join and leave messages that informs the routers whether
they are correct recipients of the messages. The sender sends the data packet only
once irrespective of the number of users. The routers in the network performs
necessary replications so that the packet can reach multiple receivers
simultaneously.

Routing is the process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow to
reach the destination. In this process, a routing table is created which contains
information regarding routes that data packets follow. Various routing algorithms
are used for the purpose of deciding which route an incoming data packet needs
to be transmitted on to reach the destination efficiently.
Classification of Routing Algorithms
The routing algorithms can be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive Algorithms
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms
3. Hybrid Algorithms
Types of Routing Algorithm--
Routing algorithms can be classified into various types such as distance vector,
link state, and hybrid routing algorithms. Each has its own strengths and
weaknesses depending on the network structure.
1. Adaptive Algorithms
These are the algorithms that change their routing decisions whenever network
topology or traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are reflected
in the topology as well as the traffic of the network. Also known as dynamic
routing, these make use of dynamic information such as current topology, load,
delay, etc. to select routes. Optimization parameters are distance, number of hops,
and estimated transit time.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Isolated: In this method each, node makes its routing decisions using the
information it has without seeking information from other nodes. The
sending nodes don't have information about the status of a particular link.
The disadvantage is that packets may be sent through a congested network
which may result in delay. Examples: Hot potato routing, and backward
learning.
 Centralized: In this method, a centralized node has entire information
about the network and makes all the routing decisions. The advantage of
this is only one node is required to keep the information of the entire
network and the disadvantage is that if the central node goes down the
entire network is done. The link state algorithm is referred to as a
centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link in the
network.
 Distributed: In this method, the node receives information from its
neighbors and then takes the decision about routing the packets. A
disadvantage is that the packet may be delayed if there is a change in
between intervals in which it receives information and sends packets. It is
also known as a decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost path
between source and destination.
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms
These are the algorithms that do not change their routing decisions once they have
been selected. This is also known as static routing as a route to be taken is
computed in advance and downloaded to routers when a router is booted.

Further, these are classified as follows:

  Flooding: This adapts the technique in which every incoming packet is
sent on every outgoing line except from which it arrived. One problem with
this is that packets may go in a loop and as a result of which a node may
receive duplicate packets. These problems can be overcome with the help
of sequence numbers, hop count, and spanning trees.
 Random walk: In this method, packets are sent host by host or node by
node to one of its neighbors randomly. This is a highly robust method that
is usually implemented by sending packets onto the link which is least
queued.

Random Walk
3. Hybrid Algorithms
As the name suggests, these algorithms are a combination of both adaptive and
non-adaptive algorithms. In this approach, the network is divided into several
regions, and each region uses a different algorithm.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Link-state: In this method, each router creates a detailed and complete map
of the network which is then shared with all other routers. This allows for
more accurate and efficient routing decisions to be made.
 Distance vector: In this method, each router maintains a table that contains
information about the distance and direction to every other node in the
network. This table is then shared with other routers in the network. The
disadvantage of this method is that it may lead to routing loops.
Types of Routing Protocol in Computer Networks--
1. Routing information protocol (RIP)
One of the earliest protocols developed is the inner gateway protocol, or RIP. we
can use it with local area networks (LANs), that are linked computers in a short
range, or wide area networks (WANs), which are telecom networks that cover a
big range. Hop counts are used by the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) to
calculate the shortest path between networks.
2. Interior gateway protocol (IGRP)
IGRP was developed by the multinational technology corporation Cisco. It makes
use of many of the core features of RIP but raises the maximum number of
supported hops to 100. It might therefore function better on larger networks.
IGRPs are elegant and distance-vector protocols. In order to work, IGRP requires
comparisons across indicators such as load, reliability, and network capacity.
Additionally, this kind updates automatically when things change, such as the
route. This aids in the prevention of routing loops, which are mistakes that result
in an unending data transfer cycle.
3. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Exterior gateway protocols, such as EGP, are helpful for transferring data or
information between several gateway hosts in autonomous systems. In particular,
it aids in giving routers the room they need to exchange data between domains,
such as the internet.
4. Enhanced interior gateway routing protocol (EIGRP)
This kind is categorised as a classless protocol, inner gateway, and distance vector
routing. In order to maximise efficiency, it makes use of the diffusing update
method and the dependable transport protocol. A router can use the tables of other
routers to obtain information and store it for later use. Every router communicates
with its neighbour when something changes so that everyone is aware of which
data paths are active. It stops routers from miscommunicating with one another.
The only external gateway protocol is called Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
5. Open shortest path first (OSPF)
OSPF is an inner gateway, link state, and classless protocol that makes use of the
shortest path first (SPF) algorithm to guarantee effective data transfer. Multiple
databases containing topology tables and details about the network as a whole are
maintained by it. The ads, which resemble reports, provide thorough explanations
of the path's length and potential resource requirements. When topology changes,
OSPF recalculates paths using the Dijkstra algorithm. In order to guarantee that
its data is safe from modifications or network intrusions, it also employs
authentication procedures. Using OSPF can be advantageous for both large and
small network organisations because to its scalability features.
6. Border gateway protocol (BGP)
Another kind of outer gateway protocol that was first created to take the role of
EGP is called BGP. It is also a distance vector protocol since it performs data
package transfers using the best path selection technique. BGP defines
communication over the internet. The internet is a vast network of interconnected
autonomous systems. Every autonomous system has autonomous system number
(ASN) that it receives by registering with the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority.

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