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Notes
●​ Hydrological Cycle
●​ Oxygen Cycle
●​ Growth Model
●​ Population Selection
●​ r & K Species
●​ Bioprospecting & Biopiracy

Hydrological cycle
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The hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle, is the

continuous movement of water within the Earth and atmosphere. It
describes how water circulates through various stages and
reservoirs.

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Key Processes of the Hydrological Cycle:

●​ Evaporation: Water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and soil turns
into water vapor due to the sun’s heat.
●​ Transpiration: Plants release water vapor into the air through
their leaves.
●​ Condensation: Water vapor cools and changes into liquid
droplets, forming clouds.
●​ Precipitation: Water falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow,
sleet, or hail.
●​ Infiltration: Some water soaks into the ground and
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replenishes groundwater.
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Runoff: Remaining water flows over the surface into rivers,

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lakes, and oceans.

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●​ Groundwater Flow: Water stored underground moves slowly

and eventually returns to surface water bodies.
This cycle ensures the distribution and recycling of Earth’s water,
supporting ecosystems, agriculture, and human needs.

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Oxygen Cycle
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The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the

movement of oxygen within and between the atmosphere,
biosphere, and lithosphere.

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Key Processes of the Oxygen Cycle:

●​ Photosynthesis:Green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use

sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen:
●​ Respiration:Animals and plants consume oxygen to break
down glucose for energy, releasing carbon dioxide and water.
●​ Decomposition:Decomposers like bacteria and fungi use
oxygen to break down dead organisms, releasing carbon
dioxide and nutrients.
●​ Combustion:Burning of fossil fuels and organic matter
consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
●​ Photolysis (in the upper atmosphere):Ultraviolet radiation
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breaks down water and nitrous oxide molecules, releasing free
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oxygen atoms which can form ozone (O₃).

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●​ Formation of Ozone:Oxygen molecules absorb UV radiation

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and form ozone in the stratosphere, which protects life by

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filtering harmful UV rays.

The oxygen cycle maintains the balance of oxygen in the
atmosphere, which is vital for the survival of most life forms on
Earth.

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Growth Model
What is a Growth Model?
A growth model explains how a population (like animals, plants, or
even humans) increases or changes over time. It helps us
understand how fast the population grows and what factors affect
its growth.
Exponential Growth Model
●​ This happens when a population grows very fast because there
are plenty of resources like food, space, and water.
●​ There are no limits to growth in this model.
●​ The population keeps doubling and increasing rapidly over
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time.
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●​ It forms a J-shaped curve on a graph.

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Example: If a pair of rabbits is kept in a large area with unlimited

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food, their population will grow quickly without stopping

Logistic Growth Model
●​ This happens when a population grows fast at first, but then
slows down as resources become limited.
●​ Eventually, the population stops growing and becomes stable.
●​ It forms an S-shaped curve on a graph.

Example: In a forest, the deer population may grow, but as food

and space become limited, the growth slows and the number of deer
becomes steady.

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Population Selection
Population selection refers to the natural processes that favor
certain traits in individuals within a population, leading to changes
in population characteristics over time. It includes mechanisms like
natural selection, sexual selection, and artificial selection.

Natural Selection
Natural selection occurs when organisms with favorable traits
(traits that improve survival or reproduction in a given environment)
are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to
their offspring. Over generations, the frequency of these beneficial
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traits increases in the population.
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Example:
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●​ Peppered Moth (Biston betularia):

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During the Industrial Revolution in England, pollution

darkened tree trunks with soot. Moths that were darker in
color were better camouflaged against predators, while
lighter-colored moths were more easily seen. As a result,
dark-colored moths became more common in industrial areas
due to better survival rates, demonstrating natural selection.
Sexual Selection
Sexual selection is a type of selection where certain traits increase
an organism's chances of attracting a mate and reproducing. These
traits may not necessarily be beneficial for survival but provide an
advantage in mating opportunities.

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Example:
●​ Peacock’s Tail:Male peacocks have large, colorful tails that
they fan out to attract females. Although the large tail may be
a disadvantage for survival (it makes the peacock more visible
to predators), it is advantageous in mating. Females prefer
males with more vibrant, larger tails, so the trait is passed on
to future generations through sexual selection.

Artificial Selection
Artificial selection occurs when humans intentionally select
organisms with desirable traits for breeding, leading to a population
with characteristics that benefit human needs or preferences. This
is different from natural selection, as humans control the selection
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process.
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Example:
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●​ Dog breeding – Breeding dogs for specific traits like size and
temperament.

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r- and K-selected Species

They are two types of species that follow different reproductive
strategies based on their environment, as explained by the r/K
selection theory in ecology.

r-selected Species (r-strategists)

Key Features:
●​ Reproduce quickly and in large numbers
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●​ Little or no parental care
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●​ Adapt to unstable or unpredictable environments

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●​ High mortality rate of offspring

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●​ Grow population rapidly (exponential growth)

Examples:
●​ Insects (e.g., mosquitoes)
●​ Rodents (e.g., rats)
●​ Weeds (e.g., dandelions)
●​ Bacteria

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K-selected Species (K-strategists)

Key Features:
●​ Fewer offspring, but high parental care
●​ Longer lifespan
●​ Adapt to stable and competitive environments
●​ Low mortality rate of offspring
●​ Maintain population near the carrying capacity (K) of the
environment
●​ Slow and steady growth
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Examples:
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●​ Humans
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●​ Elephants
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●​ Whales
●​ Large birds (e.g., eagles)

r-selected species = "Quantity over quality" → lots of babies, short

lives, little care (like weeds or insects).​

K-selected species = "Quality over quantity" → few babies, long

lives, much care (like elephants or humans).
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Bioprospecting & Biopiracy

Bioprospecting
Bioprospecting is the exploration of plants, animals,
microorganisms, or traditional knowledge to discover useful
compounds, genes, or biochemical resources.
●​ Mainly done to develop new medicines, cosmetics, agricultural
products, or industrial enzymes.
●​ It must comply with biodiversity laws (like India’s Biological
Diversity Act, 2002) and ensure benefit-sharing with local
communities.
Example:
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The anti-cancer drug vincristine was derived from the Madagascar
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periwinkle plant.
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India's neem and turmeric were also subjects of international

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bioprospecting (and biopiracy concerns).

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Biopiracy
Biopiracy is the unauthorized or unethical use of biological
resources or traditional knowledge by companies or researchers,
without giving credit or compensation to the local communities or
countries from where they were taken.
●​ Involves patenting natural products or traditional knowledge
without consent.
●​ Often affects developing countries rich in biodiversity but
lacking legal protection.

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●​ Violates the principle of Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)

under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Example:
Turmeric Case: A US patent was granted on turmeric for wound
healing—later revoked after Indian scientists proved it was
traditional knowledge.​

Neem Case: A European patent on neem's pesticide properties was

challenged and revoked because Indian farmers had long used it.​

Basmati Rice: A US company tried to patent certain varieties of

Basmati rice traditionally grown in India.
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Aspect Bioprospecting Biopiracy

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Legal? Yes, with proper No, it's

permissions illegal/unethical

Benefit-sharing? Involves equitable Ignores benefit-sharing

benefit sharing

Recognition? Credits traditional Often patents it as a

knowledge new discovery

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