Module 4

Biomass energy

BIOMASS ENERGY- Introduction- Biomass fuels-Biomass conversion

technologies –Urban waste to Energy Conversion- Biomass Gasification-
Biomass to Ethanol Production- Biogas production from waste biomass-
factors affecting biogas generation-types of biogas plants – KVIC and Janata
model-Biomass program in India
 BIOMASS ENERGY

• Biomass is a general term for living material – plants, animals, fungi,

bacteria.
• The energy obtained from biomass is known as biomass energy.
• “Biomass” can also be considered a form of solar energy as the latter is used
indirectly to grow these plants by photosynthesis.
 BIOMASS RESOURCES

1. Concentrated wastes :
(i) Municipal solid (ii) Sewage wood products
(iii) Industrial waste (iv) Manure at large lots.
2. Dispersed waste residue :
(i) Crop residue (ii) Logging residue
(iii) Disposed manure.
3. Harvested biomass :
(i) Standing biomass (ii) Biomass energy plantations
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• The preparation of food by the leaves of green plant and micro-organism in

presence of sunlight, chlorophyll, water and “CO2” is called photosynthesis.

• CO2 from the atmosphere combines with water and light energy to produce
carbohydrates (i.e., sugars, starches etc.) and oxygen.

• The photosynthesis process can be represented by the following reaction :

6CO + 6H O + light energy → C H O + 6CO

2 2 6 12 6 2
The conditions necessary for photosynthesis are :
(i) Light : The intensity of solar radiation of 400-700°. A wavelength is one of
the important inputs for biomass production; this range of light is called
‘Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)’.

(ii) CO2 concentration : CO2 is the primary raw material for photosynthesis.
The main sources of CO2 are :

— Animal respiration;

— Combustion of fuel;

— Decay of organic matter by bacteria;

— Ocean (respiration of marine plants and animal releases CO2 into the water).
(iii) Temperature : The process of photosynthesis is restricted to temperature
range of 0°C to 60°C which can by tolerated by proteins.
 BIOMASS FUELS

• Biomass is organic material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and

natural metabolic process to release heat.

• Sometimes, it is used as such in its original form .

• Often it is transformed into modern energy forms such as liquid and gaseous
fuels, electricity, and process heat to provide energy services needed by rural
and urban populations and also by industry.

• Some of its forms available to users are discussed below:

1. Fuel Wood (Virgin Wood)

• Wood is the most obvious and oldest source of biomass energy.

• This was the main source of energy used by mankind for centuries.

• Direct combustion is the simplest way to obtain heat energy. Its energy density is 16–
20 MJ/kg.

• It can also be converted to more useful forms such as charcoal or producer gas.
[Link]

• Charcoal is a clean (smokeless), dry, solid fuel of black colour.

• It has 75–80 per cent carbon content and has energy density of about 30 MJ/kg.

• It is obtained by carbonization process of woody biomass to achieve higher

energy density per unit mass, thus making it more economical to transport.

• It can be used as fuel in domestic environment as it burns without smoke.

• Chemical grade charcoal has many uses in laboratory and industrial chemical
processes.

• It is also used for making high quality steel.

3. Fuel Pellets and Briquettes

• Crop residues such as straw, rice husk etc. and waste wood are pressed to form
lumps, known as fuel pellets or briquettes and used as solid fuel.

• The purpose is to reduce moisture content and increase the energy density
of biomass making it more feasible for long distance transportation.
4. Bio-diesel

• Some vegetable oils, edible as well as non-edible can be used in pure form or
its blend with petroleum diesel as fuel in a compression–ignition (diesel)
engine.

• Bio-diesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of

sulfur and aromatics.

• Bio-diesel can be produced from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled

restaurant greases.
5. Bio-ethanol

• Ethanol (C2H5OH) is a colourless liquid biofuel.

• Its boiling point is 78 °C and energy density is 26.9 MJ/kg.

• It can be derived from wet biomass containing sugars (e.g. sugarcane, sugarbeet,
sweet sorghum, etc.), starches (grains, tubers such as potato, cassava, etc.) or
cellulose (woody matter).

• Main constituents of woody matter are: lignin (fibrous part) and cellulose (juicy
part).

• Ethanol is largely produced from sugar cane

6. Biogas

• Biogas is produced in a biogas fermenter or digester.

• Nitrogen rich sludge (fertilizer) is also produced as a byproduct with improved

sanitation as an added bonus

7. Producer Gas

• Woody matter such as crop residue, wood chips, bagasse (fibrous residue of
sugar cane after juice extraction), rice husk, coconut shell, etc., can be
transformed to producer gas (also known as synthesis gas, syn gas, wood gas,
and water gas or bluegas) by a method known as thermal gasification of solid
fuel.
BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

• There are many different ways of extracting energy from biomass. These energy
conversion technologies may be grouped into four basic types:

(i) physical method,

(ii) incineration (direct combustion),

(iii) thermo-chemical method and

(iv) biochemical method.

(i) Physical Method

• The simplest form of physical conversion of biomass is through compression of

combustible material.

• Its density is increased by reducing the volume using compression through the
processes called ‘briquetting’ and ‘pelletization’.

• Fuel oils can be extracted from plant products by expelling them.

(a) Pelletizaton : Pelletization is a process in which waste wood is pulverized, dried

and forced under pressure through an extrusion device.
(b) Briquettng :Biomass briquettes are made from woody matter (e.g. agricultural
waste, sawdust, etc.). They serve as replacement for fossil fuels such as oil or
coal, and can be used to heat boilers in manufacturing plants.

• Burning a wood briquette is far more efficient than burning firewood

(ii) Incineration
• Incineration means direct combustion of biomass for immediate useful heat.

• The heat produced are either used to generate electricity or provide the heat for
industrial process, space heating, cooking or district heating.

• Furnaces and boilers have been developed for large scale burning of various
types of biomass such as wood, waste wood, black liquid from pulp industry,
food industry waste .
• The moisture content in the biomass and wide range of
composition tends to decrease the efficiency of conversion.
(iii) Thermo-Chemical
• Biomass is heated either in absence of oxygen or by partial combustion of some of the biomass
in restricted air or oxygen supply.

1. PYROLYSIS

• Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials including rubber and plastics, which
cannot be handled by other methods.

• The products are three types of fuels, usually: a gas mixture (H2, CO, CO2, CH4 and N2), oil like
liquid (water soluble phase including acetic acid, acetone, methanol and non-aqueous phase
including oil and tar) and a nearly pure carbon char.

• The distribution of these products depends upon the type of feedstock, the temperature and
pressure during the process and its duration and the heating rate.
2. GASIFICATION

• High temperature pyrolysis (~1000 °C) maximizes the gaseous product. The process is known
as gasification.

3. CARBONIZATION

• Low temperature pyrolysis (up to 600 °C) maximizes the solid output. The process has been
used for centuries for production of charcoal. The process is known as carbonization.

4. LIQUEFICATION

• Liquid product is obtained through catalytic liquefaction process. Liquefaction is a relatively low
temperature (250–450 °C), high pressure (270 atm) thermo-chemical conversion of wet
biomass, usually with high hydrogen partial pressure and also a catalyst to enhance the rate of
reaction and/or to improve the selectivity of the process.
(iv) Biochemical
• The process makes use of metabolic action of microbial organism on biomass
to produce liquid and gaseous fuel.

• Two major biochemical processes are explained below:

• (a) Ethanol Fermentation : Alcoholic Fermentation is the decomposition in absence

of air of simple hexose sugars (sugars containing six carbon atoms per molecule,

i.e. C6H12O6) in aqueous solution by action of enzyme (a natural catalyst) present

in yeast, in acidic conditions (pH value 4 to 5).

The products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.

(b) Anaerobic Fermentation (Anaerobic Digestion)

• This process converts decaying wet biomass and animal wastes into biogas
through decomposition process by the action of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria
that live and grow in absence of oxygen).

• Carbon present in biomass may be ultimately divided between fully oxidized CO2
and fully reduced CH4. Thus:

• The biomass material in the form of water slurry is digested by the bacteria
anaerobically for several days in an airtight container.
• The reactions are slightly exothermic and small amount of heat
(equivalent to 1.5 MJ per kg dry digestible material) is also generated that
helps in maintaining favorable temperature.

• The process may be expedited at somewhat higher temperature.

• The most useful biomass materials appear to be animal manure, algae,

kelp, hyacinth, plant residues and other organic waste materials with
high moisture content
Energy available from various biomass resources
Typical metal concentrations in fly ash and bottom ash of an incinerator
12.12 ENERGY RECOVERY FROM URBAN WASTE
Rapid urbanization and industrialization have resulted in the creation of enormous quantities of
wastes in urban and industrial areas. Study of waste to energy can be divided into:
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Each year about 42 million tonnes of
municipal solid
waste is collected in the country and is disposed of in landfill dumps.
2. Municipal Liquid Waste Sewage in cities is a source of biomass energy and in India
about 6000 million cubic metres of liquid waste needs
proper disposal every year.
3. Urban Industrial Waste Industries produce a large number of residues as
by-products
that can be used as biomass energy sources. Food
industry includes pealings and scraps
from fruit and vegetables. Wine making produces distillary waste water (spent wash).
Paper and pulp making effluent is 'black liquor' which is a source for bio-oil. Starch and
glucose industrywastes are maize husk, tapioca fibre and stems. Rice mills provide large
volumes of rice husk. Sugar mills waste is a source of huge quantity of
bagasse.

12.12.1 MSW-based Power Project (6 MW Capacity)

Urban waste represents a large source of substrate for energy production. It contains dry waste
of household (waste paper etc.) mixed with kitchen scrap. It is subjected to a segregation system
where inorganics (metal, glass, grit) and plastic material are sorted out, keeping items which are
largely cellulosic with fats and proteins, i.e., are digestible. The major components of a power
project are shown in the block diagram of Figure 12.8. It is based on high-rate biomethanation
technology developed by ENTEC, Environment Technology, Austria.

Municipal
solid waste

Segregation Biomethanation Biogas Power

system unit storage generation

Organic fertilizer
production unit

Figure 12.8 Block diagram of an MSW-based power project.

The project is designed to process 500-600 tonnes of MSW per day from a city. The
collected MSW is converted into about 115 M.T. of dry volatile solids which produce 50,000 m
of biogas per day. The spent slurry in the digester (75 MT) is used as organic fertilizer. The
biogas so produced is fed into five 100% biogas engines to generate 5 MW grid-quality power.

12.13 POWER GENERATION FROM LANDFILL GAS

Recycling of city garbage and MSW poses a serious problem due to its enormous quantity. Its
sanitary disposal through landfill is a successful method even in the UK and USA. A large pit
at the outskirt is prepared and a pipe system for gas collection is laid down before the waste is
filled. For anaerobic digestion, MSW is buried, eventually the gas produced does not escape into
the atmosphere. After 2-3 months, depending on the climate, landfill gas can be extracted by
inserting perforated pipes into the landfill (Figure 12.9).

Gas storage Transformer Tog

grid
Gas wells
Generator

Gas
regulator
Gas
turbine

andfill

Figure 12.9 Landfill gas for power generation.

The gas flows through pipes under natural pressure. As the gas has calorific value of about
4500 kcal/m° it can be used either for direct heating/cooking applications or to generate power
through 1C engines. One of the largest landfill gas plants in the world is a 46 MWe plant in
California.
 BIOMASS GASIFICATION
• The word gasification (or thermal gasification) implies converting solid fuel into a
gaseous fuel by thermo-chemical method without leaving any solid carbonaceous
residue.

• Gasifier is the equipment that converts biomass into producer gas.

• Most common raw materials are: wood chips and other wastes from wood industry,
coconut shells, straw etc.
• Gasification involves partial combustion (oxidation in restricted quantity of
air/oxidant) and reduction operations of biomass.

• In a typical combustion process generally oxygen is surplus, while in gasification

process fuel is surplus.

• The combustion products, mainly carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide and hydrogen pass through the glowing layer of charcoal for the reduction
process to occur.

• During this stage both carbon dioxide and water vapour, oxidize the char to form CO,
H2 and CH4.

• Following are the typical reactions, which occur during gasification:

• The moisture available in the biomass is converted to steam and generally no extra
moisture is required.

• Thus the product of combustion of pyrolysis gases results in CO2 and H2O (steam),
which further react with char:

• The composition of the gas produced depends on the degree of equilibrium attained
among various reactions.
• Gasifiers are broadly classified into:

(i) fixed bed gasifier and

(ii) fluidized bed gasifier.

• The fixed bed gasifiers are further classified depending upon the direction of airflow as:

(a) downdraft

(b) updraft

(c) cross draft types,

12.9 BIOMASS GASIFICATION
combustible gas fuel
Biomass gasification is thermo-chemical conversion of solid biomass into a
wood and
through partial combustion with no solid carbonaceous residue. Gasifiers use waste

agriculture residue.

12.9.1 Gasifiers
Gasifiers (fixed bed type) can be of 'updraft or
'downdraft type depeding upon the direction
of the air flow. The working of biomass gasification can be explained by considering typical
a

downdraft gasifier (Figure 12.2) where fuel and air move in a co-current manner. In the updraft
gasifier, fuel and air move in a countercurrent manner. However, the basic reaction zones remain
the same.
Fuel is loaded in the reactor from the top. As the fuel moves down it is subjected to drying
(120°C) and then pyrolysis (200-600°C) where solid char, acetic acid, methanol and water
vapour are produced. Descending volatiles and char reach the oxidation zone where air is

injected to complete the combustion. It is the reaction zone and the temperature rises to 1100°C.
This helps in breaking down the heavier hydrocarbons and tars.
As these products move downwards, they enter the 'reduction zone' (900-600°C, reaction
being endothermic) where producer gas is formed by the action of CO, and water vapour on red
hot charcoal as detailed below:
 Biomass feed -

'
Drying zone
(120C)

Pyrolysis zone
(200°C 600°C)

Oxidation zone Gas outlet

1100°C

Air -Air

Reduction zone
(900°C 600°C)

---------- Fire grate

Ash pit

Figure 12.2 Downdraft gasifier.

Moist biomass + Heat Dry biomass + Water vapour

C+O CO2 + 393.8 kJ/mole (combustion)

C+ HO CO + H2 - 131.4 kJ/mole (water gas reaction)

CO+H,O » CO2 + H2 + 41.2 kJ/mole (water shift reaction)

C+CO 2c0 172.6 kJ/mole

C+ 2H2 CH + 75.0 kJ/mole (hydrogenation reaction)
Producer gas formed in the reduction zone contains combustible products like CO, H2 and CH4
Hot gas flowing out is usually polluted with soot, tar and vapour. For purifying, it is passed
through coolers, tar is removed by condensation, whereas soot and ash are removed by

centrifugal separation.
Clean producer gas provides the process heat to operate stoves (for cooking), boilers, driers,
ovens and furnaces. The major application is in area of electric power generation either through
dual-fuelIC engines (where diesel oil is replaced to an extent of 60%-80% ), or through 100%

gas-fired spark ignition engines.

A biomass gasifier-based electricity generation system costs from 4.0 crores to
4.5 crores/MW and the power generation cost is between 2.50 and 73.50 per kWh.
Fixed bed gasifiers can attain efficiency up to 75% for conversion of solid biomass to

performance depends on fuel size and moisture content, volatiles and

gaseous fuel. However, the
ash content.
12.9.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifier
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) is a better option to use than the problematic biomass of farm
residues like rice husk (high ash content), bagasse, industrial waste such as saw dust and pulping
effluents, sewage sludge etc. FBC constitutes a hot bed of inert solid particles of sand or crushed
refractory support on a fine mesh or grid. The bed material is fluidized by an upward current
of air as shown in Figure 12.3.

E+ Fuel gas outlet

Sas

Biomassinlet

Fluidized
inert bed

S Air distribution
Combustion air
grid
Air from blower

Figure 12.3 Fluidized bed gasifier

Pressurized air starts bubbling through the bed and the particles attain a state of high
turbulence, and the bed exhibits fluid like properties. A uniform temperature within the range
of 850-1050°C is maintained. Large surface area is created in the fluidized bed and the
constantly changing area per unit volume provides a higher conversion efficiency at low
operating temperatures compared to the fixed beds. High heating capacity of sand and the
uniform temperature of fluidized bed makes possible to gasify low-grade fuels of even non-
uniform size and high moisture content.
When the gasifier is put in use, the bed material is heated to ignition temperature of the fuel,
biomass is then injected causing rapid oxidation and gasification. Fuel gas so produced contains
impurities, dust, char particles and tar. It needs conditioning and cleaning for utilization as an
engine fuel.
12.16 ETHANOL FROM BIOMASS
liquid. It is a
colourless flammable renewable energy
Ethanol is ethyl alcohol (C>H,OH), a
from a variety of
source which can substitute petroleum products. Ethanol can be produced
feedstock under three
biomass materials, containing sugar, starch and cellulose. The best-known
categories are:

sorghum, grapes, molasses

Sugars: sugarcane, sugar beet, sweet

Starches: maize, wheat, barley, potatoes, cassava, rice

Cellulose: wood, straw, stems of grasses, bamboo, sugarcane bagasse.
Production process
Sugar rich crops, especially the sugarcane which contains the valuable raw material for crystal
sugar, and by-products from sugar mills are molasses that contain 50% to 55% sugar content.
It is monosaccharide form of sugar which refers to the glucose (C,H120) and fructose
(CGHI206) content in cane. Sweet fruits like ripe grape, mangoes, etc. contain glucose in natural
form. Juice containing sugar can easily be fermented into ethanol by adding yeast. Yeasts are
micro-organisms called Saccharomyees Cerevisiae which produce enzymes, that convert sugar
to ethanol.

CH206 2C>H,OH +2C0

Molasses also contain fermentable sugar comprising glucose, sucrose and fructose which are
converted into alcohol. One tonne of sugarcane with average sugar content of 12.5% yields
70 litres of ethanol by direct fermentation of juice. One tonne of molasses yields nearly 230 litres
of ethanol. Directly fermented sugarcane juice yields much higher ethanol compared to molasses.
Starch crops constitute grains which are rich in carbohydrates. Starch (CH1005)n has a
complicated structure having many glucose molecules inked together in a long chain called
disaccharide forms of sugar. It requires starch chain to be converted into sugar prior to
fermentation. Yeast culture cannot convert starch into fermentable sugars. Conversion can be
done either by hydrolysis of starch with dilute HSO, or through enzymatic method. Starch is
converted into maltose and glucose prior to initiating ethanol production.

2CH005) + nH,o d y nC pHa2011

(Starch) Maltose

C2H01+H,0 2CgH120
C,H0 Fementation 2C,HOH + 2C0,

Cellulosic material comprises dry biomass abundantly available, but difficult to utilise
carbohydrate in cellulose. Cellulose contained in wood, grasses and crop residue containa long
chain of sugars and lignin available in plants which hinders hydrolysis to sugars. This complex
material is called 'polysaccharides' in which breaking the chemical bond of cellulose is not as
easy as that of a starch to simple sugars.
The conversion of cellulosic material is carried out by special hydrolysis with dilute H,SO
at high temperature 180°-200°C, which causes the product sugar to decompose into glucose.

(CoH1005) + nH,0 nCgH10%

(Cellulose) (Glucose)
Optimum glucose production is achieved by adjusting three variables, i.e., acid concentration,
operating temperature and reaction time. Finally, ethanol is obtained by fermentation of glucose
sugars.
H..O. Fementation 32"C 2C,H,OH 2C0,
+

(Glucose) (Ethanol)
Ethanol production from various biomass crops is given in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4 Ethanol production from biomass crops

Raw material Ethano! (litre) per tonne of crop (lVt) Ethanol (litre) per hectare per year (ha)
Sugar beet 90-100 3800-4800
Sugarcanee 60-80 3500-7000
Sweet sorghum 80-90 2500-3500
Potato 100-120 2200-3300

Maize 360-400 1500-3000

Cassava 175-190 2200-2300
Wheat 370-420 800-2000

Barley 310-350 700-1300

Soft wood (hydraulic 190-220 1800-3100
agent dilute acid)
Hard wood (dilute acid) 160-180 1500-2500
Straw (dilute acid) 140-160 200-500

Source: Internet Alternate Energy Development Board (Biomass Energy Systems)

Microbial growth and conversion of sugars to ethanol is best at its 10% concentration as the
fermentation process drops down (micro-organism in the yeast is poisoned) with increase in
alcohol concentration. Concentration of ethanol can be increased to 95% by volume by
successive fractional distillation. The product is called hydrated ethanol and used as fuel in
modified IC engines.
Removal of balance 5% water from 95% ethanol concentration is not possible by simple
distillation as a constant boiling mixture (azeotrope) is formed which prevents further separation
due to the absence of differential vaporization. An hydrous ethanol is produced with azeotropic
removal of water by co-distillation using benzene as solvent. Production of ethanol from three
biomass resources is given in Figure 12.12.

Natural sugars Sugars

cane juice,
molasses, beet
|Fermentation 10% ethanol

Starches grains
maize barley Hydrolysis Fractional
distillationn
95% ethanol hvdrous
roots-potatoes Commer

Special 99.7% anhyuiUus ou

Cellulose Hydrolysis distillation
blended with petrol
wood, straw difficult

Figure 12.12 Ethanol production from biomass.

 Biomass Energy 317

12.16.1 Ethanol as Fuel

In the USA, anhydrous ethanol (10%) is blended with petrol (90%) to produce 'gasohol' a good
subsitute for petrol in automobiles without any engine modifications. Ethanol being a high
octane fuel raises the octane rating of the mixture. Octane rating is explained as the fuel's quality
Canada and Sweden also utilise
toincrease its antiknock property. Considering the advantage,
10% ethanol blended petrol. Brazil, the leader in ethanol production enhanced ethanol doping
to 25-26% with petrol to tide over the soaring oil prices.
The level of sugar production in India is 18 million tonnes per year, ensuring ethanol
for potable purpose and
production to 1700 million litres. It is assessed that the requirement
chemical sector shall consume l1200 million litres-leaving a clear balance of 500 million litres,
suffricient for 5% blending with petrol in the country.
Molasses is a residue of sugar factory from which balance 40-47% sugar cannot be obtained
with a yeast (saccharomyces cerevisiac)
by conventional methods. But molasses are fermented
and alcohol is separated in a distillation column. In Indian conditions, alcohol recovery from
molasses is about 230 litres from one tonne of molasses.
Ethanol yield is 6 times higher if the sugarcane juice is directly fermented instead of
molasses. One tonne of sugarcane with sugar content of 13% yields about 70 litres of ethanol
through direct fermentation of juice. Sugar content in molasses is only 2%. The Reliance group
of industries is venturing for such a project in Maharashtra to reduce crude oil import.

12.17 BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from non-edible oil seeds such as Jatropha, Pongamia pinnata
(Karanja), etc. which can be grown on wasteland. However, the oil extracted from these seeds
has high viscosity (20 times that of diesel) which causes serious lubrication, oil contimination
and injector choking problems. These problems are solved through trans-esterification, a process
where the raw vegetables oils are treated with alcohol (methanol or ethano! with a catalyst) to
form methyl or ethyl esters. The monoesters produced by trans-esterify i n g 8 f i b o are
called 'biodiesel' having low fuel viscosity with high octane number itihedng value.
Endurance tests show that biodiesel can be adopted as an alternative fuei tor existing diese!
engines without modifications.
In EU and USA, edible vegetable oil like sunflower, groundnut, soyabean and cotton seed,
etc. are used to produce biodiesel. India is endowed with a number of non-edible vegetable oil
producing trees which thrives in inhospitable conditions of heat, low water, rocky and sandy
soils, a renewable resource of economic significance (Jojoba in Rajasthan).
Biodiesel is the name of diesel fuel made from vegetable oil or animal fats. The concept
dates back to 1885, when Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed the first diesel engine to run on vegetable
oil. In recent past the use of bio oil as an altermative renewable fuel to compete with petroleum
was proposed during 1980.
The advantages of biodiesel as engine fuel are: (i) biodegradable and produces 80% less CO
and 100% less SO2 emissions, (i) renewable, (ii) higher octane number, (iv) can be used as neat
fuel (100% biodiesel) or mixed in any ratio with petro-diesel, and (iv) has a higher flash point
Downloaded from [Link]
Downloaded from [Link]
Downloaded from [Link]
 BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM WASTE BIOMASS

• Biogas is produced from wet biomass with about 90–95 per cent water content by the
action of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that live and grow in absence of oxygen).

• Part of carbon is oxidized and another part reduced to produce CO2 and CH4.

• These bacteria live and grow without oxygen. They derive the needed oxygen by
decomposing the biomass.

• The process is favored by wet, warm and dark conditions.

• The airtight equipment used for conversion is known as biogas plant or digester, which
is constructed and controlled to favor methane production
• Nutrients such as soluble nitrogen compounds remain available in solution and
, provide excellent fertilizer and humus.

• The energy available from the combustion of biogas is 60–90 per cent of the
input dry matter heat of combustion.

• Thus the energy conversion efficiency of the process is 60–90 per cent.

• The biochemical processes proceed in three stages, as shown in Fig.

Various stages of anaerobic digestion process

(a) Stage I: First of all the original organic matter containing complex
compounds e.g. carbohydrate, protein, fats etc. is broken through
the influence of water (known as hydrolysis) to simple water soluble
compounds.
The polymers (large molecules) are reduced to monomers (basic molecules).
The process takes about a day at 25 °C in an active digester.
(b) Stage II: The micro-organisms of anaerobic and facultative (that can live and
grow with or without oxygen) groups, together known as acid formers
produced mainly acetic and propionic acids. This stage also takes about one
day at 25 °C. Much of CO2 is released in this stage.
(c) Stage III: Anaerobic bacteria, also known as methane formers slowly digest the
products available from second stage to produce methane, carbon dioxide,
small amount of hydrogen and trace amount of other gases.
The process takes about two weeks’ time to complete at 25 °C.
This third stage, i.e. methane formation stage is carried out strictly by
the action of anaerobic bacteria.
 Factors affecting biogas generation
1. Temperature.
• The anaerobic fermentation process is temperature dependent.
• The process of the digestion and gasification proceeds at the highest rate when
the temperature lies between 35°C – 38°C.
• The process becomes slow within temperature range of 45°C – 45°C and then
rises to a peak between 55°C – 60°C.
• Rate of gas production ‘increases’ with the increase in temperature but the
percentage of methane ‘decreases’.
2. Loading rate.
• “Loading rating” is the weight of volatile solids fed to a digester per day.
• It depends upon the plant capacity and also the retention period.
• For given capacity of the digester, if the loading rate is increased the ‘retention
period’ is correspondingly decreased.
3. Solid concentration.
• Normally, 7 to 9 parts of solid in 100 parts of the slurry is considered ideal.
• It is recommended that 4 parts of the cattle dung to be mixed with 5 parts of water.
4. pH value.
• pH denotes the acidity and alkalinity of the substrate.
• The pH less than 7 is called ‘acidic’ and pH more than 7 is called ‘alkaline’ and pH
solution of 7 is called ‘neutral’.
5. Retention period.
• It is the time period for which fermentable material resides inside the digester. This
period ranges from 30 days to 50 days depending upon the climatic conditions.
• Generally it is observed that maximum gas production takes place within ‘first four
weeks’ and it tapers off gradually.
6. Nutrients concentration.
• The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are C, H2, O2, N2, P
and S.
• To maintain proper balance of nutrients an extra raw material, rich in P and N2,
should be added along with cattle dung to obtain maximum gas production.
7. Toxic substance.
• The presence of ammonia, pesticides, detergents and heavy metals are considered
as toxic substances to micro-organisms, since their presence reduces
fermentation rate.
 Classification of Biogas Plants
The biogas plants may be classified as follows :

1. Continuous type biogas plant :

(i) Single stage type;

(ii) Double stage type.

2. Batch type biogas plant.

3. Floating drum type biogas plant.

4. Fixed dome type (Janta model or chinese model).

5. Modified fixed dome type biogas plant – This type of plant has an additional
displacement tank and water seal gas tank.
1. Continuous Type Biogas Plant
• In this type of plant the biomass is fed regularly to the digester and it supplies the gas
continuously.
These are two types of continuous biogas plant :
1. Single stage type 2. Two stage type
1. Single stage continuous biogas plant. Entire process of conversion of biomass into biogas are
carried in a single digester. This chamber is regularly fed with the raw materials while the spent
residue keeps moving out.
Advantages :
• Simple in construction.
• It does not need skilled labour.
• It is easy to operate and control.
• These are preferred for small and medium sized biogas plants.
• Serious problems are encountered with agricultural residues when fermented in a single stage
continuous process.
2. Two stage continuous type biogas plant.
These plants have two digesters for digestion of biomass. In the ‘first digester’ the biomass
is fed in which the acid production is carried out and then only dilute acids are fed into
the ‘second digester‘ where bio-methanation takes place and biogas can be collected from
the second digester/chamber.
Advantages :
• It produces more gas than the single stage plants.
• It requires lesser period of digestion as compared to single stage plants.
• These plants are preferred for large size biogas plants.
Advantages of continuous type biogas plants :
Following are the advantages of continuous type biogas plants :
1. Continuous gas production.
2. Less retention period.
3. Small digestion chambers required.
4. Less problems as compared to batch type plants.
[Link] Type Biogas Plant
• In a batch type plant, the biomass feeding is done in batches with large time
interval between two consecutive batches.
• A batch loaded digester is filled to its capacity and given sufficient retention time
(35 to 45 days) for digestion of biomass.
• After the completion of digestion, the residue is emptied and filled again.
• Gas production is ‘uneven’ due to slow start of bacterial digestion and to
overcome this difficulty, several digesters are used which are fed and emptied
insequential manner. Thus, the regular supply of gas is maintained.
“Salient features” of batch type plant are :
1. Gas production uneven/intermittent, depending upon the cleaning of the digester.
2. Several digesters required, to get continuous supply of gas.
3. High space requirements, due to several digesters.
4. High initial cost, due to large volume of digester.
[Link] Drum Type Biogas Plant

• Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC) standardised a model in 1961.

• It consists of an underground “cylindrical masonary digester” having an “inlet pipe”

for feeding animal dung slurry and an “outlet pipe” for sludge.

• There is a “steel dome” for gas collection which floats on slurry.

• It moves up and down depending upon accumulation and discharge of gas guided
by the domeguide itself.

• A “partition wall” provided in the digester improves circulation, necessary for

fermentation.
• A pressure of about 100 mm of water column is built in the “floating gas holder”,
which is sufficient to supply gas upto 100 metres.
• This gas pressure also forces out the spent slurry through a sludge pipe.
Advantages :
• Gas pressure is constant.
• Less scum problem.
• No danger of explosion since there is no possibility of mixing of biogas and
external air.
• No gas leakage problem.
Disadvantages :
• High cost.
• High maintenance cost.
• There is a loss of heat through gas holder.
• The outlet pipe, which should be flexible, requires regular attention.
 [Link] Model Biogas Plant (Fixed dome)
Constructional features. This plant consists of the following parts:
1. Foundation
2. Digester
3. Dome
4. Inlet Chamber
5. Outlet Chamber.
6. Mixing Tank
7. Gas outlet pipe.
• Foundation. The foundation is the amply compacted base of the digester made of cement
concrete and brick ballast. Its construction is so carried out that it may provide a stable
foundation to the digester walls and bear full load of slurry filled in the digester. It should be
waterproof so that no percolation or water leakage takes place.

• Digester. It is underground cylindrical wall portion made of bricks, sand and cement. It is
this place where fermentation of dung takes place. It is also sometimes called
‘fermentation tank’. Two rectangular openings facing each other are provided for inflow and
outflow at almost middle of its height.

• Dome. It is a hemispherical roof of the digester; has a fixed height and forms the critical
part in the construction of Janata gobar gas plant. The gas gets collected in the space of the
dome and exerts pressure on the slurry in the digester.
• Inlet [Link] inlet chamber has a bell mouth shape and is made of bricks,
cement and sand. It has its top opening at the ground level. Its outlet wall is
made inclined/slopy to enable the daily cattle dung feed to move easily into the
digester.
• Outlet chamber. It is that part of the plant through which digested slurry moves
out of the digester at a predetermined height. It has a small rectangular cross-
section and above this it becomes larger to a defined height.
For easy cleaning of the digester two steps are provided in it which enable a
man to climb down. Its top opening is also at the ground level. Just near the top
opening is provided a small outlet through which the digested/spent slurry flows
to a compost pit.
• Mixing tank. It is this tank where dung and water are mixed properly in the
ratio of 1 : 1 to make slurry which is then poured into the inlet chamber.
• Gas outlet pipe. It is a small piece of G.I. Pipe which is fitted at the top of the
dome for conveying the gas to the points of use. A valve is fitted at its end to
regulate the flow of gas to the gas connections.
Advantages and disadvantages of “Fixed dome type plants”
Advantages :
• No maintenance problems due to absence of moving parts.
• Low cost.
• Low operating cost.
• Longer working life.
• Due to underground construction, heat insulation is better and therefore, rate of
gas production is uniform during night and day.
• Quantity of gas producd is higher than movable drum type plants.
• No corrosion problem.
• Space above the plant can be used for other purposes.
Disadvantages :
• Variable gas pressure.
• Gas production per cm3 of the digester volume is less.
• Problem of scum formation.
• For construction work skilled masons are required.
 [Link] Fixed Dome type
(Deenbandhu Biogas Plant (DBP))

• This is fixed dome plant developed by Action for Food Production (AFPRO) in
1984.
• It is appropriate for all types of wastes and minimizes biogas losses from inlet
chamber.
Construction. It has ‘curved bottom’
and ‘hemispherical top’ which are joined
at their bases with no cylindrical portion
in between. An ‘inlet pipe’ connects
‘mixing tank’ with the‘digester’.
• Working. Cattle dung slurry prepared in 1 : 1 ratio with water is fed upto the
level of second step in the outlet tank.
• As the gas generates and accumulates in the empty portion of the plant, it
presses the slurry of the digester and displaces it into the outlet ‘displacement
chamber’.
• The slurry level in the digester falls whereas in the outlet chamber it starts rising.
• This fall and rise continues till the level in the digester reaches the upper end
of the outlet opening and at this stage the slurry level in the outer tank
reaches the height of discharge opening.
Advantages :
• This plant required less space being mainly underground.
• Its cost is reduced as the surface area is minimised by joining segments of two
different diameter spheres at their bases.
• It is 30 percent economical as compared to Janata biogas plant.
Comparison Between Fixed Dome Type and Movable
Drum Type Biogas Plants
12.11 BIOGAS PLANTS
The biogas plant is a device that converts cattle dung and other
organic matter into inflammable
gas called biogas and into a good quality organic manure under anaerobic conditions. There are
wo popular designs of biogas plants: ) Floating drum (constant presure) type and ci) Fixed
dome (constant volume) type.

12.11.1 Floating Drum Type Biogas Plant

A popular model developed by Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC) was standardized
in 1961. It comprises underground
an
cylindrical masonary digester having inlet pipe for
feedinganimal dung slurry and an outlet pipe for sludge. There is a steel dome for gas collection
an

which floats over the slurry. It moves up and down depending upon accumulation and discharge
of gas guided by the dome guide shaft (Figure 12.4).

Gas pipe
Mixing pit Floating
gas holder
Spent slurry

Ground level -Outlet tank

Inletpipe
Outlet pipe

Slurry

-Partition wall

Support Masonary work

for pipe

Figure 12.4 Floating drum biogas plant (KVIC model).

 A partition wall is provided in the digester to improve circulation, necessary for
fermentation. The floating gas holder builds gas pressure of about 10 cm of water column,
sufficient to supply gas up to 100 metre. Gas pressure also forces out the spent slurry through
a sludge pipe.

12.11.2 Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant

It is an economical design where the digester is combined with a dome-shaped gas holder
(Figure 12.5). It is known as Janata model; the composite unit is made of brick and cement
masonary having no moving parts, thus ensuring no wear and tear and longer working life. When
gas is produced, the pressure in the dome changes from 0 to 100 cm of water column. It regulates
gas distribution and outflow of spent slurry.

Gas pipe

Removable man Gas valve

hole cover
seated with clay , Loose cover
Inlet-

Gas
100 mm Spent slurry
Max. pressure

Displacement tank

Digester
Foundation

Figure 12.5 Fixed dome biogas plant (Janata model).

 BIOMASS PROGRAMME IN INDIA
With serious concern globally and in India on the use of fossil fuels, it is important for India to start
using renewable energy sources. India is the 7th largest country in the world spanning 328 million
hectares and amply bestowed with renewable sources of energy. Among the renewable energy
sources, biomass plays a vital role especially in rural areas, as it constitutes the major energy source
to majority of households in India. Biomass energy is the utilization of organic matter present and can
be utilized for various applications.
 Biomass can be used to produce heat and electricity, or used in combined heat and power (CHP)
plants.

 Biomass can also be used in combination with fossil fuels (co-firing) to improve efficiency and reduce
the build up of combustion residues.

 Biomass can also replace petroleum as a source for transportation fuels.

Types of Biomass

Biomass is highly diverse in nature and classified on the basis of site of origin, as follows:
a. Field and plantation biomass
b. Industrial biomass
c. Forest biomass
d. Urban waste biomass
e. Aquatic biomaSS

Technologies involved in Biomass Energy Production

Biomass is a complex class of feed stocks with significant energy potential to apply different
technologies for energy recovery. Typically technologies for biomass energy are broadly classified on
the basis of principles of thermo chemistry as combustion, gasification, pyrolysis and biochemistry as
anaerobic digestion, fermentation and trans-esterification. Each technology has its uniqueness to
produce a major calorific end product and a mixture of by-products.

Biomass Energy in India

 India produces about 450-500 million tonnes of biomass per year. Biomass provides 32% of all the
primary energy use in the country at present.

 EAI estimates that the potential in the short term for power from biomass in India varies from about
18,000 MW, when the scope of biomass is as traditionally defined, to a high of about 50,000 MW if
one were to expand the scope of definition of biomass.
 The current share of biofuels in total fuel consumption is extremely low and is confined mainly to 5%
blending of ethanol in gasoline, which the government has made mandatory in 10 states.

 Currently, biodiesel is not sold on the Indian fuel market, but the government plans to meet 20% of
the country’s diesel requirements by 2020 using biodiesel.

 Plants like Jatropha curcas, Neem, Mahua and other wild plants are identified as the potential sources
for biodiesel production in India.

 There are about 63 million ha waste land in the country, out of which about 40 million ha area can be
developed by undertaking plantations of Jatropha. India uses several incentive schemes to induce
villagers to rehabilitate waste lands through the cultivation of Jatropha.

 The Indian government is targeting a Jatropha plantation area of 11.2 million ha by 2012.

Government incentives and Subsidies for Biomass Energy Production

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) provides Central Financial Assistance (CFA) in
the form of capital subsidy and financial incentives to the biomass energy projects in India. CFA is
allotted to the projects on the basis of installed capacity, energy generation mode and its application
etc. Financial support will be made available selectively through a transparent and competitive
procedure.

Bottlenecks faced by the Indian Biomass Industry

Biomass to Power/Heat
One of the most critical bottlenecks for biomass plants (based on any technology) is the supply chain
bottlenecks that could result in non-availability of feedstock. A related problem is the volatility, or more
precisely increase, in the feedstock price. Both these could render the project unviable. There is other
concerns and bottlenecks as well such as:

 Lack of adequate policy framework and effective financing mechanisms

 Lack of effective regulatory framework

 Lack of technical capacity

 Absence of effective information dissemination

 Limited successful commercial demonstration model experience

Biomass to Transportation fuels

Biodiesel
 One of the main problems in getting the biodiesel programme rolling is the difficulty linked to initiating
large-scale cultivation of Jatropha. The following problems have been cited by farmers regarding
Jatropha cultivation:

 Lack of confidence in farmers due to the delay in notifying, publicizing and explaining the government
biodiesel policy.

 No minimum support price.

 In the absence of long-term purchase contracts, there are no buy-back arrangements or purchase
centres for Jatropha plantations.

 Lack of availability certified seeds of higher yield containing higher oil content.

 No announcement of incentives/subsidy and other benefits proposed to be provided to farmers

Bioethanol
 The overwhelmingly dominant factor in the production of ethanol in India is the price and availability of
molasses.

 The Central government sets the policy regarding ethanol blending, but the State governments control
the movement of molasses and often restrict molasses transport over State boundaries. State
governments also impose excise taxes on potable alcohol sales, a lucrative source of revenue.