Making measurements using an analogue multimeter

When using an analogue multimeter, measurements for voltage, current and resistance need to be made in different ways. To
illustrate the way in which these different tests can be made using an analogue multimeter, the simple circuit shown below will be
used:

 Voltage measurements: The voltage measurement is the easiest form of measurement to make using an analogue
multimeter. The two leads need to be connected across the area of the circuit where the voltage measurement is to be
made. Typically the "Common" or "COM" connection on the multimeter is used for the negative voltage end of the
measurement and the connection marked "Volts" or similar goes to the positive end of the measurement. For some high or
low voltage measurements, there may be a separate connection available and this should be chosen.

Once the relevant connections of the multimeter have been chosen the switch can be turned to the correct range and the
measurement taken.

 Current measurements: When using a multimeter to make a current measurement, the meter is placed in series with the
circuit where the current measurement is to be made.

 Resistance measurements: For any resistance measurement, the component to be measured should be removed from the
circuit as other paths will be present that will distort the reading. Also any power remaining within the circuit will add to the
 inaccuracies. Never measure resistance when the circuit is powered, as power from the circuit will not only distort the
reading, but could damage the meter.

Using analogue test meters can be every bit as easy as using digital multimeters. Their accuracy is normally more than adequate and
with a little care and understanding in their use they provide an excellent for of multimeter.

The Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter - A.C. and Ohmmeter Ranges

By Larry Klein,
Technical Editor

Fig. 6. Two typical voltage-doubling rectifiers used in VTVMs. The diodes' contact potentials buck each other in (A) and the "A.C. Bal"
pot selects the zero point. In (B) the negative potential is bucked against B-plus voltage tapped off the "A.C. Bal" pot.

Fig. 7. Typical waveforms from a standard television set.

Fig. 8. Note relationship between r.m.s. and P-P scales. P-P scale is 2.83 times larger than r.m.s. scale.
Fig. 9. Circuit diagram of an ohmmeter section of a vacuum-tube voltmeter.

Last month we looked into a vacuum-tube voltmeter, examined the bridge circuit and saw how it measured d.c. voltages. As a
review, let's look at Fig. 5, a diagram of the d.c. measurement circuit. (Figures 1 to 4 appeared in April.)

The unknown d.c. voltage connected to the input terminals is applied across the entire range switch voltage divider. Maximum on-
scale reading is obtained by setting the range switch at the proper voltage divider tap. The unknown d.c. voltage is now applied to
the input grid of the bridge - unbalance of the triodes results and the meter deflects. So much for the d.c. bridge.

A.C. Voltage Measurement. What do we have to do to enable the d.c. bridge to respond to a.c.? Why not simply rectify the
unknown a.c. voltage and then apply the resultant d.c. to the bridge input as we would any d.c. voltage? That's actually what the
standard VTVM does. Unfortunately, however, a number of electronic bugs appear which prevent a simple diode circuit from being
used, and the circuits in actual practice usually look like those in Fig. 6. Why the complications? Let's take a close look at Fig. 6 (A).

On one half of the cycle, the a.c. voltage to be measured is fed through capacitor C1 to the cathode of one diode of the 6H6 tube,
and thence to ground, The capacitor, of course, gets charged in the process. On the positive-going part of the a.c. cycle, no current
flows through the first diode, C1 discharges and adds its voltage to that developed across the three resistors connected to the plate
of the second, conducting diode.

If we look carefully at the circuit, we'll recognize a type of voltage doubler. Why a voltage doubler? Well, remember we need to get
a d.c. voltage out of the rectifier circuit which is at least as high as the a.c. input voltage. Taking into account the voltage drop across
the various components in the circuit, obviously some technique is needed to soup up the d.c. output ... and that's what the doubler
does.

Further circuit complications arise from a phenomenon called contact potential. It seems that vacuum tubes, including diodes, tend
to develop a small potential between the elements. If allowed to remain, this slight voltage in the 6H6 would cause a spurious
reading on the low a.c. ranges. However, placing the a.c. balance control between the two oppositely connected diodes, exact
compensation can be made by bucking out the opposing contact voltages.

Since the center contact of the a.c. balance potentiometer is also the take-off point for the d.c. output, about half the d.c. developed
across the three resistors is lost by tapping off at this point. Actually, this is of small consequence, because the d.c. voltage across
the three resistors is equal to more than the peak of the r.m s. a.c. input voltage, so we have volts enough to spare to provide an
r.m.s. reading.

R.M.S. and P-P. The key words in that last sentence were "r.m.s, reading," which brings us to Fig. 6(B). Slightly more complicated
than the rectifier discussed above, this circuit also makes use of a doubler circuit.
Because of the low breakdown voltage of the 6AL5 tube, a voltage divider (in addition to the one in the grid of the bridge tube) is
needed to prevent the tube from "arcing out" at the higher peak voltages. As shown, the a.c. input voltage divider is part of the
range switch and is, therefore, mechanically coupled to the bridge divider.

Perhaps you're wondering why the extra resistors at the a.c. input don't cause a large difference in scale calibration between the a.c.
and d.c. ranges. The VTVM takes care of that by switching the last three bridge voltage divider resistors out of the grid circuit when
set up for an a.c. reading.

Whereas the job of the second diode in Fig. 6(A) is mainly to cancel out the contact potential of the first diode, the second diode of
Fig. 6(E) has a different story to tell. Both diodes in Fig. 6(B) are used in a complete voltage-doubler hookup which charges C2 to the
full peak voltage of the incoming waveform. Contact potential cancellation voltage is obtained from a tap across the VTVM's B-plus
supply.

The waveforms shown in Fig. 7 are taken from a standard TV set. You can imagine the difficulties an r.m.s. calibrated a.c. meter
would have translating them to any sort of meaningful reading. Even putting a peak-to-peak reading scale on the meter face (it
would be the r.m.s. scale x 2.83) wouldn't help much because the reading would still only be accurate for sine-wave inputs.

However, the P-P a.c. rectifier finds no difficulty in smoothing down these weird-looking spikey TV waveforms into an exact d.c.
equivalent and then feeding them to the bridge circuit. The exact relationship between the P-P scales on a standard peak-reading
VTVM is shown in Fig. 8.

Resistance Measurement. One of the first things that hits your eye in the ohmmeter section of the VTVM is the R x 1 meg. range
switch position. With the last scale division on the meter face marked 1000, this means that the VTVM can read up to a 1000 x 1
million or a billion ohms!

The ohmmeter section of the average VTVM resembles the one shown in Fig. 9. The string of seven resistors may differ in value
somewhat depending on the exact scales used and whether they are arranged in series, as shown, or switched individually. But the
principle of operation remains the same, as we shall see.

Suppose we redraw the range switch and input circuit of Fig. 9 into the form of Fig. 10. We will use only one range resistor (Rrange)
and connect the resistor to be measured (Rx) to the VTVM's input terminals. The bridge circuit remains the same and we will ignore
it for now.

The first thing to do when using a VTVM ohmmeter is to "zero" it. Short the input leads together and adjust the Zero Adj. control for
a zero reading on the meter scale. Then, unshort the leads of the VTVM and the needle will immediately swing to the right-hand side
of the meter face. Now adjust the meter to ∞ (infinite) ohms.

Let's see what the preceding adjustments have accomplished in terms of the internal electronics of the VTVM.

Zero-adjusting the meter with the leads shorted has shorted out the battery through resistor Rrange to ground and removed the
voltage from the grid of the bridge tube. Unshorting the test leads restores the battery voltage to the grid and the meter swings full
scale. The Ohms Adj. knob, which is in the same spot as the A.C. and D.C. Cal. controls in the other circuits, adjusts the sensitivity of
the meter so that the applied battery voltage swings the meter needle exactly to the infinite ohms scale marking on the meter face.

Suppose a 100-ohm resistor (Rx) is connected across the input leads and Rrange is also set at 100 ohms. The voltage present at the
grid of the bridge tube will be exactly halved, and the meter will read half scale. Now if you look at the top scale of the meter face
shown in Fig. 8, you'll see that the center of the scale indicates exactly 10.

If Rx were a 30-ohm resistor, for example, the shunting effect across Rrange would be increased and even less voltage would reach the
bridge tube. A higher value resistor as Rx and a higher meter reading results. The only trick involved, and the reason why it's so
difficult for some home constructors to build their own ohmmeters, is the scale calibration. As can be seen in Fig. 8, the scale
divisions are widely spaced at the right side of the meter face and narrow down towards the left. A little thought as to how parallel
resistors divide current will tell you why that is so.

The Function Switch. In talking about the VTVM, we've left out practically any reference to the function switch. Since these switches
are so difficult to show schematically in an understandable way without a prolonged discussion of each switch position and what it
accomplishes, we thought it best to save them till last.

The function switch is usually specially made for each manufacturer's VTVM and, if analyzed, generally works out to be a five-pole,
five-position unit. Some of its jobs include switching the input jacks to the proper circuit, connecting in the correct calibration
control for each function, reversing the meter movement connections for plus and minus d.c. and, in some cases, even turning the
VTVM on and off.

If you're curious, a complete schematic of the RCA "VoltOhmyst" VTVM kit is shown on page 79 of this issue and should answer any
questions you may have about the specific connections of the function switch.

Next month we will put the VTVM "to work in an area in which it's practically indispensable - repairing a hi-fi amplifier. The basic
Williamson amplifier should be a good subject, and we will learn how to troubleshoot one and what sort of measurements the
VTVM will turn up in working and non-working models.