Module 3

PHYSICAL OPTICS

Lesson 1 Nature and Propagation of Light

Lesson 2 Properties of Light (Reflection,

Refraction, Total Internal Reflection,
Dispersion, Polarization, Interference,
Diffraction and Scattering of Light)

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MODULE III

PHYSICAL OPTICS

 INTRODUCTION

Light wave is an electromagnetic radiation which is the only visible to

the eye. Being an electromagnetic radiation, it doesn’t require any medium
to travel. In contrast to sound waves, light wave is a transverse wave as it
moves perpendicular to the direction of motion. The study of the properties,
nature, propagation and all about sound is called physical optics.
Several theories explained the nature of light but the most accepted
today is its duality nature, that light behaves as a wave and a particle. Wave
properties of light will be explored in this module like reflection, refraction,
total internal reflection, dispersion, polarization, interference, diffraction
and scattering of light.
Our ability to see things can be explained by the reflection property
of light. The reason why stars shimmer, the occurrence of mirage, the
“flattening” of the moon, and the larger sun during sunset, the cut-effect of
objects submerged partially in water are explained by refraction. Fiber optics
is an application of total internal reflection. The beautiful rainbow is
explained by the dispersion of light. Cutting of the glare of the sun is a
polarization effect. The appearance of colors in the soap bubbles and discs
is due to the interference property of light. The bending of light along
corners is defined as diffraction. Lastly, the reason why we have blue sky,
and white clouds is due to the scattering of light.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. characterize light by knowing its nature and how it propagates; and

2. explore the behavior of light by describing its different properties
such as reflection, refraction, dispersion, polarization, interference,
diffraction and scattering

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

This module consists of two (2) lessons. First lesson describes the
nature and propagation of light. Second lesson will be on the properties of
light.

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As a student, you are expected to read very well each lesson to fully
understand each concept presented. In addition, you are also expected to
submit comprehensive answers to the exercises provided at the end of each
lesson and do the activities assigned in the discussion part (if there are any).

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Lesson 1

 NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the nature of light as an electromagnetic wave

2. derive the speed of light to explain how it propagates

NATURE OF LIGHT WAVES

Zubairy (2016) discussed the nature of light as he discussed the brief

history of it. According to him, the significant developments on what is light
can be seen in the discussion of theories of light as follows:

1. Corpuscular Theory of Light

Sir Isaac Newton(1642-1727) advocated the Corpuscular Theory of

Light. According to him, light is made up of small corpuscles as opposed to
big matter as they are composed of big corpuscles. These tiny corpuscles
travel in straight lines through space. He also proposed that white light is
composed of the range of colors arranged according to the colors of the
rainbow, wherein red is bent the least and violet bending the most. This is
through an experiment he conducted using prisms. Note that a prism is a
material that separates light into different colors.

2. Wave Theory of Light

Christian Huygens (1629-1695) proposed that light are waves which

propagates through ether just like sound waves travelling in air. He then
concluded that light is a longitudinal wave as opposed to the ideas of Fresnel
and Maxwell that light is a transverse wave. Propagation of light as a wave is
in accordance to the property of light to produce secondary wavelets as it
enters an opening. This is now called as the Huygens’s Principle.

This wave nature of light of Huygens was supported by Thomas Young

(1773-1829) using his double-slit experiment. According to his experiment,
when light is passed through two holes, the projection shows a division by
dark stripes. Young also related that the colors of the light corresponds to
wavelength, with re of about one 36 thousand of an inch and violet to be one
60 thousand.

Sir Augustin Jean Fresnel (1788-1827) supported the wave nature of

light using his diffraction experiment. In his experiment, a light is passed
through a diffractor, series of dark and bright bands could be seen on the
screen. Blocking one edge of the diffractor resulted in the vanishing of the
bright bands. He concluded that the bright bands are caused by light, and the
bright bands when one edge of the diffractor is blocked is caused by reflection

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of light on the unblocked side. He published his work on wave diffraction in

1815 and won a competition sponsored by the French Academy of Sciences.

In addition to the success of Fresnel on his diffraction experiment, he

was also able to explain the occurrence of polarized light which are only
confined to parallel planes in his circularly polarized light, concluding that
light is not a longitudinal wave as proposed by Huygens but a transverse
wave. Young also supported that light is a transverse wave.

3. Electromagnetic Theory of Light

The changing electric fields and magnetic fields according to James

Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), propagates light. He based his work on the work
of Michael Faraday (Faraday’s Law) which states that changing magnetic flux
causes an induction of electricity, and Andre-Marie Ampere (Ampere’s Law)
that changing electric flux causes an induction of magnetic fields. Vibrating
electric charges in the atom induces magnetic fields and the magnetic field
created induces electric filed. These magnetic field and electric filed are
always perpendicular with each other. This supported that light is indeed a
transverse wave as what Fresnel had proposed. The debunk of the
longitudinal wave nature of light as proposed by Huygens also debunk the idea
of the ether where light according to him travels.

This theory of electromagnetic wave nature of light was confirmed in

an experiment by Heinrich Herts in 1888.

4. Quantum Theory of Light

Max Planck (1858-1947) had resolved the problem on Rayleigh-Jeans

ultraviolet catastrophe as he proposed an equation about emission of light by
a black-body (ideal radiators of light), which revolutionize the nature of light.
According to him, the tiny emitters of light on the surface of the black-body
can only have certain values of energy, that is energy is quantized (and not
continuous according to classical physics). The Rayleigh-Jeans formula that
radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the frequency was
a failure at high frequencies.
Planck had three steps in his derivation of his formula using his idea
that atoms and molecules in a body act like oscillators to absorb and emit
radiation. In his electromagnetic step, he calculated the energy of the
harmonic oscillators with frequency f created by the periodic electric field.
In the thermodynamic step, calculation of the entropy of the oscillators that
matches with the universal function u(f,T) was made possible. Note that this
universal function u(f,T) describes the radiation density that on average gets
both absorbed and reemitted, at any particular frequency f and temperature
T. The third step follows a logical perspective that there should be a total
energy from finite energy elements to find for the total entropy of the black-
body. This made him to conclude that these finite energy elements should
have an energy E equivalent to nℏf where n is an integer, ℏ is a constant
(today it called as the Planck’s constant which is equivalent to 6.62607 ×
10−34joule∙second or 4.136 × 10−15 electronvolt-second (Note that 1ev=1.602 ×

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10−19Joule)) and f is the frequency. This is the idea that energy emitted is
quantized and not continuous. This tiny packets of energy are referred to as
quanta, hence the name of the theory. He earned the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1918.
In 1905 in his concept of photoelectric effect (emission of electrons
from a metallic surface by light or photon depending on its frequency), Albert
Einstein(1875-1955), was able to postulate that this light or photon contains
fixed amount of energy in accordance to the energy proposed by Planck,
E=nhf. How then is emission of electron possible? According to Einstein, the
energy of the photon is transferred to the electron causing its ejection. As
what was claimed by Einstein, that light is a photon (a photon is a particle)
supports the Corpuscular Theory of Light.

Other evidences that light is a particle include the separation of light

into colors or spectra as studied by Niels Bohr using hydrogen, X-ray
production of Wilhelm Rontgen(Roentgen), and Arthur H. Compton
Compton’s scattering (scattering of X-ray).

Conversely, experiments conducted by Prince Louis de Broglie using

his De Broglie waves in 1924, and Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer’s
Electron Diffraction support the concept that particle can be waves, that is
light can be waves.

Remarks: We will be discussing details of this particle and wave nature of

light in Modern Physics.

5. Duality Nature of Light (Young, Freedman, & Ford, 2016)

Due to the evidences that light can behave both as a particle and wave,
the most accepted nature of it is its Particle-Wave Duality.

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Wave model can describe the propagation of light and ray model can
describe its direction. Electromagnetic radiation (which include light) are
produced due to accelerated electric charges. Radiation is emitted due to the
thermal motion of molecules comprising the matter.
Light is produced by atoms that have gained energy either by absorbing
light from another source or by being struck by other particles. The
production of light can be described by these processes:

1. Luminescence

Luminescence is a process by which substances gain energy and emit

light without being heated. Objects that can be seen because they reflect
light waves are illuminated objects. While luminous objects are those giving
off their own lights because of energy of its oscillating particles. Examples
can be seen in Figure 1.1.

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a. Sun as Luminous Object

b. Moon as an Illuminated Object (Non-Luminous)

Photo Source:
a. [Link]
star_Z2ZnZm6UmZqaraWkpJRmbmdlrWZmbWU.jpg
b. [Link]
RDWIcPazrhZOXiYOz4=/1280x0/smart/cloudfront-us-east-
[Link]/advancelocal/[Link]

Figure 1.1 Example of Luminous and Non-Luminous Objects

Luminescence light is incoherent (the emitted waves are not in phase

with each other) in this case. Sometimes the emission of luminescence can
be stimulated by irradiation with photons of the same frequency as that of
the emitted light; such stimulated transitions are used in lasers, which
produce very intensive beams of coherent monochromatic light.

2. Phosphorescence

Phosphorescence is the emission of light from a substance exposed to

radiation and persisting as an afterglow after the exciting radiation has been
removed. Unlike fluorescence, in which the absorbed light is spontaneously
emitted about 10-8 second after excitation, phosphorescence requires

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additional excitation to produce radiation and may last from about 10-3
second to days or years, depending on the circumstances. Glow in the dark
(Figure 1.2a) is an example of a phosphorescent material.

3. Fluorescence

Fluorescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation, usually

visible light, caused by excitation of atoms in a material, which then reemit
almost immediately (within about 10−8 seconds). The initial excitation is
usually caused by absorption of energy from incident radiation or particles,
such as X-rays or electrons. Because reemission occurs so quickly, the
fluorescence ceases as soon as the exciting source is removed, unlike
phosphorescence, which persists as an afterglow. A fluorescent lightbulb
(Figure 1.2b) is coated on the inside with a powder and contains a gas;
electricity causes the gas to emit ultraviolet radiation, which then stimulates
the tube coating to emit light

a. Glow in the Dark

b. Fluorescent Bulb
Photo Source:
[Link]://[Link]/thmb/1vjuvNemUZgqoZbrTe_Un10CgbM=/2313x1295/fil
ters:fill(auto,1)/[Link]
b. [Link]
XkByEg/s1600/[Link]

Figure 1.2 Examples of Phosphorescent and Fluorescent Materials

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4. Incandescence

Incandescence occurs when hot objects (atoms of the materials are in

high state of agitation) emit light. Incandescent materials can give off all the
colors of visible light depending on the temperature of the material. An
incandescent bulb (Figure 1.3a) is an example.

a. Incandescent Bulb

b. Firefly
Photo Source:
[Link]://[Link]/th?id=OIP.NjCXuyvpa1tfOl9k6odYwQHaEo&pid=Api&P=0&h=
180
b. [Link]

Figure 1.3 Examples of Incandescent and Bioluminescent Materials

5. Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is an effect when living organisms emit light due to

chemical reaction among proteins and oxygen in the organism. A firefly
(Figure 1.3b) is an example.

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SPEED OF LIGHT

No matter what its source, electromagnetic radiation travels in vacuum

at the same speed c. This is in accordance to Postulate 2 of Einstein’s Special
Theory of Relativity, that speed of light is constant.

Let’s derive the speed of light using the four Maxwell’s equations. Let’s
first recall these four equations:

⃑:
1. Gauss Law for 𝑬
𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍
∮ ⃑𝑬 ⋅ 𝒅𝑨
⃑⃑ =
𝝐𝒐
This states that the total electric flux of a closed surface area
is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.

⃑⃑ :
2. Gauss Law for 𝑩
⃑⃑ ⋅ 𝒅𝑨
∮𝑩 ⃑ =𝟎
This states that the magnetic flux in a closed surface is always
zero.

3. Faraday’s Law :
𝒅𝚽𝑩
⃑ ⋅ 𝒅𝒍 = −
∮𝑬
𝒅𝒕
This states that changing magnetic field induces a current.

4. Ampere’s Law:
𝑑Φ𝐸
⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑖𝑐 + 𝜖0
∮𝐵 ) 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
𝑑𝑡

This states that changing electric field induces magnetic field.

Now let’s start the derivation process. Consider an electromagnetic

wave travelling at a speed c moving in the +x-direction as seen in Figure 1.4a.

Let’s try to verify the first and second equation of Maxwell if they hold
in our chosen system. Consider the rectangular Gaussian surface in Figure
1.4b. The box encloses no charge. Electric field (𝐸⃑ ) exists on the surface and
on the bottom of the Gaussian surface but cancels out since they have the
same magnitude. Also, the magnetic field (𝐵 ⃑ ) on the right of the Gaussian
surface cancels out with the magnetic field on the left. If say that either (𝐸⃑ )
or (𝐵⃑ ) are parallel to the direction of motion (that is, they will have x-
components) then the total electric flux or magnetic flux wouldn’t be zero.
But since both 𝐸⃑ and 𝐵 ⃑ are perpendicular with each other, both Maxwell
equation 1 and 2 are satisfied. This is a proof that electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves, they travel perpendicular to the direction of motion
of the wave.

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a. b.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.4 Electromagnetic Wave Front

How about the third equation of Maxwell, that is the Faraday’s Law?
Will it hold to our electromagnetic wave travelling as seen in Figure 1.4a?
Let’s examine Figure 1.5 to show if Faraday’s Law holds.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.5. Illustration For Faraday’s Law of the Electromagnetic Wave

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Let we name the rectangle efgh which is parallel to the xy-plane as

shown in Figure 1.5a. This rectangle has height a and length Δ𝑥. From
Faraday’s Law,
𝑑Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡

Let us first evaluate the left side of the equation. We get the
infinitesimal length dl as an element from the four sides of the rectangle
directed perpendicular to the motion of the wave as seen in Figure 1.5b. Now
we will see those sides of the rectangle where either 𝐸⃑ is not zero or 𝐸⃑ . 𝑑𝑙
would be parallel since if they are perpendicular (cos 90=0), 𝐸⃑ . 𝑑𝑙 would be
zero. For the side ef, 𝐸⃑ is zero since there is no electric field at this side. This
eliminates the side ef. Note that at sides fg and he, 𝐸⃑ and 𝑑𝑙 are
perpendicular with each other, thus 𝐸⃑ . 𝑑𝑙 = 0. We are left with the side gh
where we can find that 𝐸⃑ and 𝑑𝑙 are oppositely directed, resulting to a
negative value. This is the only side contributing to the integral. Evaluating,
∮ 𝐸⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐸𝑙]𝑎𝑜 = −𝐸(𝑎 − 0) = −𝐸𝑎

Now let us evaluate the right side of the Faraday’s equation, that is we find
𝑑Φ
for an expression equivalent to the change of magnetic flux, 𝑑𝑡𝐵 . As we can
see in Figure 1.5b, as confirmed by the right hand rule, magnetic field 𝐵⃑ has
only the z-component. During a time interval dt, the wave front had traveled
a distance cdt in the positive z-direction with a vector area dA to be a(cdt).
Evaluating, since Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴, then the infinitesimal flux is
𝑑Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝑑𝐴
𝑑Φ𝐵 = 𝐵(𝑎𝑐𝑑𝑡)

Therefore, rate of change of this infinitesimal flux is given by,

𝑑Φ𝐵
= 𝐵𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Φ
Equating ∮ 𝐸⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑑𝑡𝐵 in accordance to Faraday’s Law,
𝑑Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡
−𝐸𝑎 = −𝐵𝑎𝑐
𝑬 = 𝑩𝒄
This is an expression for the electromagnetic wave in vacuum. It says that
electric field is dependent on the magnetic field given a constant speed c.

Now let’s see if the 4th equation of Maxwell holds true for our given
electromagnetic wave. Since we are considering an electromagnetic in
vacuum, conduction current is zero (no rate of change of charge), giving the
Ampere’s Law to be
𝑑Φ𝐸
∮𝐵 ⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝜖0 )
𝑑𝑡

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Just like what we did in the Faraday’s Law, we first look for the expression
on the left side of the equation of the Ampere’s Law, that is we find for an
expression for ∮ 𝐵 ⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 . We will be using the same illustration of the
electromagnetic wave, but since we are evaluating this time on the magnetic
⃑ , our illustrative rectangle will be changed from xy plane to xz plane
field, 𝐵
(turning down the rectangle) as seen in Figure 1.6a.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 1.5. Illustration For Ampere’s Law of the Electromagnetic Wave

⃑ and 𝑑𝑙 are
Again only the side gh contributes to the line integral dl where 𝐵
parallel in the same direction, thus,

⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙]𝑎𝑜 = 𝐵(𝑎 − 0) = 𝐵𝑎
∮𝐵

Evaluating the right side of the Ampere’s Law just like what we did in the
Faraday’s Law,
𝑑Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝑑Φ𝐸 = 𝐸(𝑎𝑐𝑑𝑡)

Therefore, rate of change of this infinitesimal flux is given by,

𝑑Φ𝐵
= 𝐸𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑡
⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑑Φ𝐸 in accordance to Ampere’s Law,
Equating ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑡
𝑑Φ𝐸
∮𝐵⃑ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝜖0 )
𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑎 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝐸𝑎𝑐
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝐𝟎 𝑬𝒄

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This is another expression for the electromagnetic wave in vacuum. It can

be seen in the equation that for this electromagnetic wave, magnetic field is
dependent on the electric field given the magnetic constant, 𝝁𝟎
permittivity of space, 𝝐𝟎 and speed, c as constants.

Substituting 𝐸 = 𝐵𝑐 which was derived from Faraday’s Law in the

expression derived from Ampere’s Law,

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (𝐵𝑐)𝑐
Simplifying,
1 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝑐 2
1
𝑐2 =
𝜇0 𝜖0
𝟏
𝒄=√
𝝁𝟎 𝝐𝟎

This is the equation for the speed of electromagnetic wave (speed of light).
It depends only on the magnetic constant and permittivity in space.

Since 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 and 𝜖0 = 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2 , c is

𝟏
𝒄=√
(4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 )(8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2 )

𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 or
𝒄 = 𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

This is indeed a proof that speed of electromagnetic waves (including light

is constant!). The modern value of the speed of light based on calculations
is 299,792,458 m/s due to the more defined value of 𝜖0 .

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Lesson 2
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT (REFLECTION AND REFRACTION,

 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION, DISPERSION,

POLARIZATION, INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION, AND
SCATTERING OF LIGHT)

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe how light is reflected and refracted;

2. illustrate how total internal reflection and dispersion of light
occurs;
3. appreciate the polarization of light applications;
4. discuss the experiments conducted to prove the interference and
diffraction properties of light; and
5. explain how scattering of light happens

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

We had discussed, in general, in Module 1 Lesson 2 how waves are

reflected and refracted. Here we are going to study how reflection and
refraction occur in lights. Let’s discuss first reflection of light waves.

Reflection, recalling its definition, is the bouncing of wave upon

reaching a surface. All materials reflect light but the effect is dependent on
what type of material the light comes in contact with. Opaque materials, like
bricks, wood, metal, paper and many more, absorb light waves that fall on
them, so we cannot see that there is bouncing off light from them.
Transparent material, like glass and plastics, transmit light waves and permit
objects to be seen clearly through them. Translucent materials like
lampshades, wax paper and frosted glass, allow light to be transmitted
through them but its rays are distorted during the passage. All these materials
can have either specular or diffuse reflection. Recall that specular reflection
is reflection from a smooth surface while diffuse reflection is a reflection
from a rough surface. It is noted further that both types of reflection follow
the Law of Reflection, that is angle of reflection, 𝜃𝑟 is equal to angle of
incidence, 𝜃𝑖 . In equation,

LAW OF REFLECTION
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟

Recall that the mechanism on how waves are reflected is that, when
an incident ray strikes a reflecting surface (Figure 2.1a), a reflected ray will
bounce back in reference to a line perpendicular to the surface called the
normal line. The angle formed by the incident wave to the normal line is
called the angle of incidence, 𝜽𝒊 while the angle formed by the reflected
wave is called the angle of reflection, 𝜽𝒓 .

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a. Reflection of Light Wave

b. Refraction of Light Wave

Photo Source:
a. [Link]
b. [Link]

Figure 2.1 Reflection and Refraction of Light Wave

Now let’s discuss refraction of light wave. Refraction is the bending of

light from a transparent medium of one density to another medium a different
optical density. As incident ray strikes a transparent surface, at an angle
called angle of incidence, 𝜽𝒊 from a normal, light will pass though the
transparent materials as a refracted ray at an angle called angle of
refraction, 𝜽𝑹 as shown in Figure 2.1b. Note in the figure that 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝒊 and
𝜽 𝟐 = 𝜽𝑹 .
The index of refraction (also called refractive index), n is responsible
for the ability of the material to refract light. In equation, this index of
refraction is
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
where c is the speed of light and 𝑣 is the speed of light in the material.

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The indexes of refraction for some common materials can be seen in Figure
2.2.

Photo Source: [Link]

fb75e18e0c3d%[Link]

Figure 2.2 Index of Refraction of Selected Materials

Willebrord Snell (1591-1626), proposed the Law of Refraction (known

as Snell’s Law) as he discovered that the ratio of the the angle of incidence
and the angle of refraction is constant. This constant is the index of
refraction. In equation,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊
=𝒏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑹

The Law of Refraction, considering the difference between media, can be re-
expressed as the ratio of the sines of the angles 𝜽𝒊 and 𝜽𝑹 , where both
angles are measured from the normal to the surface, is equal to the inverse
ratio of the two indexes of refraction:

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊 𝒏𝟐
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑹 𝒏𝟏
or
𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑹

Refraction depends on the (1) material as well the (2) wavelength of

the light.

1. Material Dependence

When a ray passes from one material with index of refraction 𝑛1 into
another material having a smaller index of refraction 𝑛2 , that is 𝑛2 < 𝑛1 , speed

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increases, thus, angle of refraction 𝜽𝑹 is greater than the angle of incidence

𝜽𝒊 . In this case, the refracted ray is bent away the normal as seen in Figure
2.3a.
Conversely, when a ray passes from one material with index of
refraction 𝑛1 into another material having a larger index of refraction 𝑛2 , that
is 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 , speed decreases, thus, angle of refraction 𝜽𝑹 is less than the angle
of incidence 𝜽𝒊 . In this case, the refracted ray is bent towards the normal as
seen in Figure 2.3b.

a. 𝒏𝟐 < 𝒏𝟏 b. 𝒏𝟐 > 𝒏𝟏

Photo Source: [Link]

Figure 2.3. Refraction of Light in Different Media

2. Wavelength Dependence

The frequency, f of the light does not change when light is refracted,
but since speed changes, the wavelength also changes. Since f is the same
in any material in vacuum and 𝑣 is always less than the wave speed c in
vacuum, 𝜆 is also correspondingly reduced. Thus, the wavelength 𝜆 of light in
a material is less than the wavelength 𝜆0 of the same light in vacuum. Note
that 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, thus
𝑣 𝑐
𝑓= =
𝜆 𝜆0
With 𝑛 = 𝑐/𝑣, thus 𝑣 = 𝑐/𝑛, and
𝑐/𝑛 𝑐
=
𝜆 𝜆0
𝑐𝜆0
= 𝜆𝑐
𝑛
𝝀𝟎
𝝀=
𝒏

This is the wavelength of light in the material.

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When a ray passes from one material with index of refraction 𝑛1 into
another material having a smaller index of refraction 𝑛2 , that is 𝑛2 < 𝑛1 , speed
increases, thus, the wavelength 𝝀𝟐 (wavelength in the second material) is
longer than the wavelength in the first material, 𝝀𝟏 .

Conversely, when a ray passes from one material with index of

refraction 𝑛1 into another material having a larger index of refraction 𝑛2 , that
is 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 , speed decreases, thus, the wavelength 𝝀𝟐 (wavelength in the
second material) is shorter than the wavelength in the first material, 𝝀𝟏 .

Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

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The following are some applications of refraction of light:

1. Material immersed in water appears to be bent.

Light rays from any submerged object bend away from the normal when
they emerge in water (since water has higher index of refraction than air).
For example, in Figure 2.4, a ruler half-immersed in water appears to be bent.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.4. Refraction of Ruler Submerged in Water

This is the reason why when you are to go fishing, always aim the fish
below the apparent position to catch it.

2. Flattening of the sun during sunset

Light rays entering our atmosphere bend downward as they enter the
atmosphere because the index of refraction of air is greater than 1. Light
coming from the lower limb of the sun is more refracted since it passes
through denser air in the lower atmosphere, thus flattening the sun most on
the lower limb as seen in Figure 2.5.

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Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics 14th
Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.5 Refraction in Sunset

3. Mirage

Mirage is an optical effect that is sometimes seen at sea, in the desert,

or over a hot pavement, that may have the appearance of a pool of water or
a mirror in which distant objects are seen inverted, and that is caused by the
bending or reflection of rays of light by a layer of heated air of varying
density. Cooler air has higher density as compared to hotter air, thus light ray
slows down in cooler air resulting in the refracted ray to be bent away the
normal. Mirage is illustrated in Figure 2.6a.

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a. Mirage

b. Refraction in a Star
Photo Source:
a. [Link]
b. [Link]

Figure 2.6 Other Refraction Examples

4. Twinkling of Stars

A star twinkles, as shown in Figure 2.6b, (technically known as stellar

scintillation) because the optical density of the air at the upper levels of the
atmosphere is different from that at the lower levels. But to add excitement
to the refraction, winds that blow mix the air and change the densities,
causing the refraction to "change with the winds”.

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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection is an effect in which all the light is reflected

internally when light travels from a denser to a less dense medium. This
happens when the angle of refraction is equivalent to 90o as shown in Figure
2.7. The angle of incidence at this point is called critical angle, 𝜽𝒄 . So, from
Snell’s Law,

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑅
𝑛1 si n 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 si n 90
But since sin 90 =1,
𝑛2
si n 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1

𝒏𝟐
𝜽𝒄 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒏𝟏

This is the critical angle or the minimum angle of incidence in which there
is total internal reflection.

Photo Source: [Link]

[Link]

Figure 2.7 Total Internal Reflection

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Applications of total internal reflection include:

1. Porro prism
Noting that a glass-air interface has a critical angle
1
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 41.1
1.52

a 45o-45o-90o prism can be created. This is called a Porro prism. It is used in

binoculars as seen in Figure 2.8a.

a. Porro prisms in Binoculars b. Intubation Endoscope

c. Fiber-optic Cable

d. Diamond
Photo Source:
a. [Link]
b. [Link]
c. [Link]
d. [Link]

Figure 2.8 Applications of Total Internal Reflection

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2. Fiber-optic devices

Fiber optics, or optical fiber, are the technology that transmits

information as light pulses along a glass or plastic fiber.

a. Endoscopes (Figure 2.8b) are medical instruments inserted to the body for
visual examination of organs like bladder, colon, and other organs.

b. Fiber-optic cable

A fiber optic cable (Figure 2.8c) is a network cable that contains

strands of glass fibers inside an insulated casing. They're designed for long-
distance, high-performance data networking, and telecommunications.
Compared to wired cables, fiber optic cables provide higher bandwidth and
transmit data over longer distances. Fiber optic cables support much of the
world's internet, cable television, and telephone systems.

3. Jewelry

Diamond (Figure 2.8d) is very precious due to its brilliance attributed

to its high index of refraction (n=2.417) thus small critical angle. Due to this
property, light is total internally reflected and emanates into its facets
making it to shine bright.

DISPERSION

Dispersion is splitting of a beam of light into different range of colors

known as spectrum upon entering a material called prism. This is due to the
dependence of wave speed and index of refraction on wavelength of light.
Recalling the equation for the wavelength of light in a given material,

𝜆0
𝜆=
𝑛

It can be inferred from the equation that as the index of refraction increases,
the wavelength decreases. In this material, light of longer wavelength has
greater speed than light of shorter wavelength. In a prism. The change of
direction produced increases with increasing index of refraction and
decreasing wavelength making violet light (shortest wavelength) to be
deviated the most and red (longest wavelength) to be deviated the least, thus
the arrangement of colors in the spectrum.

Application of dispersion of light is the existence of rainbows. How can

we see the colors of the rainbow trough dispersion? Water droplets in the
clouds act as tiny prism separating the colors as ROYGBIV. Rainbows are
produced through two refraction and one internal reflection as shown in
Figure 2.9.

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Figures adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.9 Formation of Rainbow

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(a) Double Rainbow

Photo Source:
a. [Link]
[Link]
b and c. Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern
Physics 14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.10 Double Rainbow

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From Figure 2.9a, sunlight comes from behind you, enters a water
droplet, is (partially) reflected from the back surface of the droplet, and is
refracted again upon exiting the droplet. A light ray that enters the middle
of the raindrop is reflected straight back. All other rays exit the raindrop
within an angle Δ of that middle ray, with many rays “piling up” at the angle
Δ . What you see is a disk of light of angular radius centered on the down-sun
point (the point in the sky opposite the sun); due to the “piling up” of light
rays, the disk is brightest around its rim, which we see as a rainbow (Fig.
2.10a). Because no light reaches your eye from angles larger than Δ, the sky
looks dark outside the rainbow. The value of the angle Δ depends on the index
of refraction of the water that makes up the raindrops, which in turn depends
on the wavelength. The bright disk of red light is slightly larger than that for
orange light, which in turn is slightly larger than that for yellow light, and so
on. As a result, you see the rainbow as a band of colors.

The formation of double rainbows (Figure 2.10a) is due to the

dispersion, refraction and two internal reflections from the back surface of
water droplets. As the light ray struck the back surface, part of the light is
refracted out of the drop, thus the formed secondary rainbow is much fainter
than the primary rainbow. The second internal reflection reverses the
sequence of the colors thus in the secondary rainbow, the spectrum is
reversed.
For the primary rainbow (Figure 2.10b) the angle Δ ranges from 40.8o
(violet) to 42.5o (red) while for the secondary rainbow (due to the reversal of
colors), the angle Δ ranges from 50.1o (red) to 53.2o (violet).

POLARIZATION

Polarization involves the oscillations (regular variation in strength) of

the electric fields that comprise the light. Even that electromagnetic such as
light propagates through changing electric and magnetic fields, only the
electric field contributes to the polarization property, due to the reaction of
the electromagnetic-wave detectors to the electrical forces on electrons and
not on magnetic forces.

Light waves are naturally comprised of tremendous number of

molecules with random orientations, thus, the emitted light is directed in all
directions. This light is called unpolarized or natural light. To polarize light,
a device is needed and is called a polarizer or polarizing filters. These
polarizers only transmit light waves parallel to the planes (as seen in Figure
2.11a). An ideal polarizer transmits half of the intensity of the incident
intensity. An example of this is the Polaroid, which is used in sunglasses and
polarizing filters for camera lenses. Polaroid filters transmit 80% or more of
the intensity of the light wave that is polarized parallel to the polarizing axis
of the material.

When a second polarizer, called analyzer is passed to the linearly

polarized light as shown in Figure 2.11b, then two events can happen: (1) if
the analyzer is parallel to the polarizer then the parallel component of 𝐸⃑

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which is equivalent to 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 (this is the maximum value) would be

transmitted; (2) if the analyzer and the polarizer are perpendicular with each
other then there will be no transmitted intensity. Other values of 𝐸⃑ depends
on the value of the 𝜙.

a. Polarizer

b. An Analyzer

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.11 Illustration of a Polarizer and an Analyzer

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The transmitted intensity at the intermediate values of the angle

𝜙can be found using the Malus’s Law defined as,

INTERFERENCE

If two or more light waves of the same frequency overlap at a point,

the total effect (called interference) depends on the phases of the waves as
well as their amplitudes. The resulting patterns of light are a result of the
wave nature of light and cannot be understood on the basis of rays.
Interference is a phenomenon that occur when two waves combine.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

When monochromatic light passing through two narrow slits illuminates

a distant screen, a characteristic pattern of bright and dark fringes is
observed (Figure 2.12).

Photo Source: [Link]

[Link]?s=1500x700&q=85

Figure 2.12 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

This interference pattern is caused by the superposition of overlapping

light waves originating from the two slits. Regions of constructive
interference, corresponding to bright fringes, are produced when the path

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difference from the two slits to the fringe is an integral number of

wavelengths of the light, that is

Destructive interference and dark fringes are produced when the path
difference is a half-integral number of wavelengths, that is

Deriving an expression for the positions of the centers of the bright

bands on the screen, let ym be the distance from the center of the pattern to
the center of the mth bright band, R be the distance of the slit to the screen,
and 𝜃𝑚 be the corresponding value of 𝜃, then

𝑦𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑚

Letting that the distances, 𝑦𝑚 are often smaller than the distance R,
then,𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑚 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑚 , hence
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑚

If we combine the expression for the constructive interference to this

distance,
𝑚𝜆
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑅 ( )
𝑑
or

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Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Thin Film Interference

When light is reflected in a thin film, we see bands of colors as a result

of constructive or destructive interference of colors making up the light. This
is seen in the soap bubbles; and in thin layer of oil floating in water. Let’s see
what’s happening in the soap bubbles as an illustration of interference.
Consider the soap bubble as a thin film as shown in Figure 2.13.

a. Interference in Soap Bubbles b. Thin Film

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.13 Interference in a Thin Film

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Light shining on the upper surface of a thin film with thickness t is

partly reflected at the upper surface (path abc). Light transmitted through
the upper surface is partly reflected at the lower surface (path abdef). The
two reflected waves come together at point P on the retina of the eye.
Depending on the phase relationship, they may interfere constructively or
destructively. Different colors have different wavelengths, so the
interference may be constructive for some colors and destructive for others.
That’s why we see colored patterns in soap bubbles.

DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the superposition of many waves (interference effects)

with a result of the bending of light and production of wavelets in accordance
to Huygen’s Principle. Examples of this effect include the colors of iridescent
butterflies; the “rainbow” you see reflected from the surface of a compact
disc; the effects with x rays that are used to study the atomic structure of
solids and liquids; and the physics of a hologram, a special kind of
interference pattern used to form three-dimensional images.
Figure 2.14 illustrates diffraction.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.14 Illustration of Diffraction

In Figure 2.14a, a shadow of a razor blade placed halfway between a

pinhole, which is illuminated by a monochromatic light is seen. As seen in
Figure 2.14b, a region near the shadow of the right edge of the blade in the
photograph of the razor blade is highlighted. It is noted that the area outside
the geometric shadow is bordered by alternating bright and dark bands. There
is some light in the shadow region, although this is not very visible in the
photograph. The first bright band in Fig. 36.2b, just to the right of the
geometric shadow, is considerably brighter than in the region of uniform

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illumination to the extreme right. This simple experiment gives us an idea of

a diffraction pattern.
Two methods of creating diffraction were proposed: (1) when the point
source and the screen are relatively close to the obstacle forming the
diffraction pattern. This situation is described as near-field diffraction or
Fresnel diffraction, pronounced “Freh-nell” (after the French scientist
Augustin Jean Fresnel, 1788–1827); and (2) when the source, obstacle and
screen are far apart which we refer to as Fraunhofer diffraction (after the
German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer,1787–1826).

Single- Slit Diffraction

Figure 2.15 illustrates a single-slit diffraction in accordance to

Fraunhofer diffraction method. Our goal is to find for the equation how to
locate for the dark fringes.

Figure adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Figure 2.15 Single-Slit Diffraction

First consider two narrow strips, one just below the top edge of the
drawing of the slit and one at its center, shown Figure 2.15. The difference
𝑎
in path length to point P is (2) sin 𝜃, where a is the slit width and 𝜃 is the
angle between the perpendicular to the slit and a line from the center of the
slit to P.
𝜆
Suppose this path difference happens to be equal to 2 ; then light from
these two strips arrives at point P with a half cycle phase difference, and
cancellation occurs. This is also the case for the light from two strips
immediately below the two slits, thus giving a dark fringe interference
pattern. This dark fringe occurs when

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𝑎 𝜆
( ) sin 𝜃 = ±
2 2
or
𝜆
sin 𝜃 = ±
𝑎
The plus-or-minus 12 sign says that there are symmetric dark fringes above
and below point O. We can also show that a dark fringe occurs as an integer
multiples thus,

Since the wavelength of light(order of 500nm) is much smaller than the

slit width, we can approximate that the value of sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃. In this case, the
equation would become,
𝑚𝜆
𝜃= (𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3 … )
𝑎

If 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑦𝑚 /𝑥, and if 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 is approximated by 𝜃,

𝑦𝑚 = 𝑥 𝜃
𝒎𝝀
𝒚𝒎 = 𝒙 ( )
𝒂

This is the distance of the mth dark band from the center.

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Example adopted from Young, H.D Freedman, R.A., Ford, L. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics
14th Edition. Retrieved from [Link]

Diffraction Grating

An array of a large number of parallel slits, all with the same width a
and spaced equal distances d between centers, is called a diffraction grating.
The first one was constructed by Fraunhofer using fine wires. Gratings can be
made by using a diamond point to scratch many equally spaced grooves on a
glass or metal surface, or by photographic reduction of a pattern of black and
white stripes on paper. In a reflection grating, the array of equally spaced
slits is replaced by an array of equally spaced ridges or grooves on a reflective
screen. The rainbow-colored reflections from the surface of a DVD are a
reflection grating effect. The “grooves” are tiny pits 0.12 mm deep in the
surface of the disc, with a uniform radial spacing of 0.74 mm = 740 nm.
Information is coded on the DVD by varying the length of the pits. The
reflection-grating aspect of the disc is merely an aesthetic side benefit.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT

The existence of the atmosphere made possible for the scattering of

light. Without our atmosphere, the sky would appear as black just like what
we are seeing at nighttime. The absorption and re-radiation of the sunlight
by the atmosphere is called scattering of light. This property of light is
responsible why the sky is blue, sunsets are red, clouds are white, white sky
(during hazy days), blue mountains, and blue moon.
Scattering of light depends on the size of the scattering particles, R
and on the wavelength, 𝜆 of the scattered light. There are three types of
scattering:

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1. Geometric Scattering.

This happens when the scattering particle size is much much greater
than the wavelength of the scattered light, that is 𝑅 ≫ 𝜆. The particle size is
just like raindrops (𝑅~10 − 100 𝜇𝑚). In geometric scattering, all wavelengths
are equally scattered (thus the appearance of white).

Example of geometric scattering is the appearance of the cloud to be

white. The appearance of white clouds is due the scattering of light by
raindrops. Visible light at all wavelengths is scattered in all directions. Clouds
are optically thick with respect to light scattering but they do not absorb light
well. The thicker the cloud, the more that the light is scattered backwards
and less sunlight reaches the bottom of the cloud, thus, thicker clouds appear
darker. At the bottom of the very thick clouds, the raindrops are even larger
and more light is scattered, thus clouds appear even darker. As an
application, when you see that clouds are dark that means they are already
saturated and rain is possible to fall. When you see that the clouds are white,
that means that it is a fair day.

During hazy days, the sky is white, because of the geometric scattering
by dust and salt particles. All wavelengths are scattered thus the appearance
of white sky. If the sky is darker that means that the air is loaded with more
particulates.

2. Mie Scattering

This happens when the scattering particle size is comparable to the

wavelength of the scattered light, that is 𝑅~𝜆. The particle size is the size of
aerosols (𝑅~0.01 − 1 𝜇𝑚). In Mie scattering, red is scattered better than blue.
Shorter wavelengths (blue) pass in the forward direction and scatter longer
wavelengths(red) into the surrounding sky, that’s why we see the blue color
of moon.

3. Rayleigh Scattering

Rayleigh scattering (in honor of Lord Rayleigh) happens when the

scattering particle size is much less than the wavelength of the scattered
light, that is 𝑅 ≪ 𝜆. The particle size is the size of air molecules (𝑅~0.0001 −
0.001 𝜇𝑚). Rayleigh described that the intensity of the light scattered from
air molecules increases in proportion to the fourth power of the frequency
(inversely to the fourth power of the wavelength). In equation,

1
𝐼=
𝜆4

Thus, the intensity ratio for the two ends of the visible spectrum is
1750 nm/380 nm)4 = 15. Thus, scattered light contains 15 times as much blue
light as red, that is, blue light is scattered more than red as opposed to Mie

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scattering. This is the reason why the sky is blue and there exists blue
mountains.
Near sunset, when sunlight has to travel a long distance through the
earth’s atmosphere, a substantial fraction of the blue light is removed by
scattering. White light minus blue light looks yellow or red. This explains the
yellow or red hue that we so often see from the setting sun.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Light can be either wave or a particle. Several theories explained the

nature of light but the most accepted today is its duality nature, that light
behaves as a wave and a particle.

Light as an electromagnetic wave have different properties. These

include reflection, refraction, total internal reflection, dispersion,
polarization, interference, diffraction and scattering of light.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module III. Good luck in the next
Module.

Module III