1.

0 HISTORY AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE OR EARLY HISTORY

The beginnings of agriculture go back to the first domestication of plants and animals. In the
early history, there was a gradual transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies after a
lengthy period during which some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered
in the wild.
The evolutionary/intentionality theory, advanced by scholars including David Rindos, is the
idea that agriculture is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with
domestication by protection of wild plants, followed specialization of location and then
domestication.
Where did agriculture originate?. We consider two steps.
 Hunters and Gatherers
 Invention of Agriculture

HUNTERS AND GATHERERS

 Before the invention of agriculture, all humans probably obtained the food they needed
for survival through hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering.
 Hunters and gatherers lived in small groups. i.e. hunter gatherers settled in small
communities in the Fertile Crescent, a narrow band of land arcing across the Near East.
 The men hunted game or fished, and the women collected fruits, berries, nuts, and roots.
This division of labor sounds like a stereotype but is based on evidence from archaeology
and anthropology.
 The group traveled frequently, establishing new home bases or camps.
 The direction and frequency of migration depended on the movement of game and the
seasonal growth of plants at various locations.
 New evidence suggests that people cultivated rye over 13,000 years ago, while
continuing to hunt animals and gather wild plants in the Fertile Crescent.
 Hunter-gatherers turn to agriculture only as a last resort when population pressure forces
them to acquire more food on available space.
Today, contemporary hunting and gathering societies are isolated groups living on the periphery
of world settlement, but they provide insight into human customs that prevailed in prehistoric
times, before the invention of agriculture. It is estimated that only a quarter-million people, or
less than 0.005% of the world’s population, perhaps still survive by hunting and gathering.

THE INVENTION OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture evolved into two types of cultivation, i.e. Vegetative Planting and Seed Agriculture.
Over thousands of years, plant cultivation apparently evolved from a combination of
accidental and deliberate experiment. i.e. with the passage of time man observed that
seeds thrown away germinated and produced fruits similar to the original ones consumed.

1
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 However, the earliest form of plant cultivation, according to Carl Sauer, was vegetative
planting, direct cloning from existing plants, such as cutting stems and dividing roots.
Coming later, according to Sauer, was seed agriculture. Seed agriculture is practiced by most
farmers today. Similarly, by trial and error, some animals were made to live in close contact with
man through the keeping of the young ones caught during hunting, and animals were thus
domesticated.

Vegetative Planting Hearths.

There were several main hearths, or centers of origin, for vegetative crops (roots and tubers,
etc.), from which the crops diffused to other areas as shown in the figure below.

Location of First Vegetative Planting - Dr. Sauer believes that vegetative planting probably
originated in Southeast Asia.
 The region’s diversity of climate and topography encouraged plants suitable for dividing.
 The first plants domesticated in Southeast Asia probably included roots such as the taro
and yam, and tree crops such as the banana and palm.
 The dog, pig, and chicken probably were domesticated first in Southeast Asia.
 Other early hearths of vegetative planting also may have emerged independently in West
Africa and northwestern South America.

Seed Agricultural Hearths

Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone significant
developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. Seed agriculture originated in several
hearths and diffused from those elsewhere.
Seed Culture (in the Old World) - originated in drier subtropics of both hemispheres (8,000-
10,000 years ago). These include:-

A. Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Fertile Crescent)

B. Indus River – Northern India and Pakistan
C. Huang Ho (Yellow River-Yangtze) – Northern China

DIFFUSION OF SEED AGRICULTURE

Seed agriculture diffused from Southwest Asia across Europe and through North Africa. Seed
agriculture also diffused eastward from Southwest Asia to northwestern India and the Indus
River plain. Thus, evidence points to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East as the site of the
earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild.
Independent development of agriculture is also believed to have occurred in northern and
southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas.

Sauer identified a third independent hearth in Ethiopia, where millet and sorghum were
domesticated early. However, he argued that agricultural advances in Ethiopia did not diffuse

2
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
widely to other locations. Also two independent seed agriculture hearths originated in the
Western Hemisphere: southern Mexico and northern Peru. Agricultural practices diffused to
other parts of the Western Hemisphere.

The first archeological evidence for the domestication of cereals and earliest evidence of
domestication of animals comes from abroad region stretching from Greece to Crete in the west
to the foothills of the Hindu Kush south of the Caspian in the east. Here are found the wild plants
from which wheat and barley were domesticated. Also the wild progenitors of sheep, goats, pigs
and cattle were found here.

The eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appeared after 9,500 BC. The first was emmer
and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax (for its oil
rather for fibre). However, wheat was the first crop to be sown and harvested on a significant
scale in the fertile crescent.

By 7000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia and there, in the fertile soil just north
of the Persian Gulf, Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 6000 BC farming was
entrenched on the banks of the Nile River. About this time, agriculture was developed
independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop.

Maize was first domesticated, probably from teosinte (“wild corn”), in the Americas around
3000-2700 BC. The potato, the tomato, the pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, and several
other plants were also developed in the New World. The three regions of the Americas
independently domesticated corn, squashes, potato and sunflowers.

In the Sahel region of Africa local rice and sorghum were domesticated by 5000 BC. Local crops
were domesticated independently in West Africa and possibly in New Guinea and Ethiopia.
Evidence of the presence of wheat and some legumes in the 6th millennium BC has been found
in the Indus Valley. Oranges were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops grown in the
valley around 4000 BC were typically wheat, peas, sesame seed, barley, dates and mangoes. By
3500 BC cotton growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley.

By 3000 BC farming of rice had started. Other monsoon crops of importance of the time were
cane sugar. By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of the staple diet in Mohenjodaro
near the Arabian Sea. By this time the Indians had large cities with well-stocked granaries. By
about 5,500 BC (the Bronze Age) wild food contributed a nutritionally insignificant component
to the usual diet. Large scale intensive cultivation of land was started by the Sumerians (in the
fertile soil just north of the Persian Gulf) that included mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and
use of a specialized labour force. Barley was the main crop grown by the Sumerians. They were
therefore the "inventors of real agriculture”.

3
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
In Sumer, barley was the primary crop; wheat, flax, dates, apples, plums, and grapes were grown
as well. Mesopotamia was blessed with flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Sheep and
goats were also domesticated, kept mainly for meat and milk, butter and cheese being made from
the latter. Ur, a large town that covered about 50 acres (20 hectares), had 10,000 animals kept in
sheepfolds and stables and 3,000 slaughtered every year. The city's population of 6,000 included
a labour force of 2,500, cultivated 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land. The labour force contained
storehouse recorders, work foremen, overseers, and harvest supervisors to supplement labourers.
Agricultural produce was given to temple personnel, important people in the community, and
small farmers.

Seed agriculture was associated with the plough and draught animals. The land was plowed by
teams of oxen pulling light un-wheeled plows and grain was harvested with sickles in the spring.
The Roman agriculture built off techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by
subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export.
Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which
flourished in the Middle Ages. The invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the
Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved
agricultural efficiency. After 1492 the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the
widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and
animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New
and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the tomato became a favorite in European cuisine, and like
wheat, maize and potatoes were widely adopted. Other transplanted crops include pineapple,
cocoa, and tobacco.
Agriculture was a key element in the Atlantic slave trade, Triangular trade, and the expansion by
European powers into the Americas. In the expanding plantation economy, large plantations
producing crops including sugar, cotton, and indigo, were heavily dependent upon slave labor.
With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th centuries, especially in Britain,
particularly in the form of the tractor, and later the Combine harvester, farming tasks could be
done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible.

Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed
long ago but have made great strides in the past century. Until the development of chemical
fertilizers, Guano was widely used as a fertilizer, though expensive. The Haber-Bosch method
for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to
overcome previous constraints. The work of Haber and Bosch of NH3 fertilizer synthesis and
contribution of other scientists such as Norman Borlaug, who began developing crops for
increased yields in the 1940s in Mexico led to the Green Revolution, which applied western
advances in fertilizer and pesticide use to farms worldwide, with varying success.

Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation,
Hydroponics, and the development of economically viable biofuels such as Ethanol In the past
4
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
century, agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of human
labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. Nevertheless,
the recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including
water pollution, bio-fuels, Genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies. In recent
years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of mechanized
agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and Sustainable agriculture.

In Africa, there were two centres of plant domestication, south of Sahara. One in the western
Sudan Zone, another in Ethiopia. However, many believe that Agriculture only reached sub-
Saharan Africa (excl Egypt) by diffusion from Egypt and the Maghreb. In the western Sudan
/Ethiopia, local plants such as pearl millet, finger millet and sorghum were domesticated.

1.6.4 INTRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURE IN EAST AFRICA

For East AFRICA, pastoral peoples from Arabia moved southwards with sheep, goats and cattle
and may have also grown grain crops. Also, in East Africa, Seyyid Said utilized the fertile soils
of the Coast, for large scale crop production. Settlers from Oman and Zanzibar were encouraged
to settle in Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu. He provided them with slave labour. From 1840, the
people of Mombasa increased their farming activities by acquiring land on the mainland, from
the Mijikenda. They cultivated rice, maize, millet, beans, sesame, sorghum and copra.
Plantations were also established in Malindi due to the presence to vast stretched of unoccupied
land. The main crops grown included; millet, sesame, beans, coconuts and fruits such as
mangoes and oranges. By the 1870’s Malindi was referred to as the granary of East Africa. The
plough did not reach Africa until the 19th C.

In Kenya (like sub Saharan Africa), there was limited number of crops when Europeans first
arrived in the 19th C. The most important was sorghum and millets. Maize arrived in Kenya by
late 16th C from Brazil by the Portuguese. Such food crops were adopted more rapidly than cash
crops. The colonial government introduced a number cash crops to encourage their growing
among the indigenous populations by late 19th and early 20th C. for example, Coffee Arabica
introduced in 1895, upland cotton in 1904, pyrethrum was introduced in Kenya in 1928. Also
shifting cultivation was practiced, and livestock were kept but were not integrated with crop
production.

SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN KENYA

This section looks at the development of settler agriculture during the colonial period in Kenya.
It covers both crop growing and rearing of livestock.

Crop Growing
Agricultural development in the protectorate owed much to the settlers, particularly Delamere.
Its foundations had been laid in the 1920’s and 1930’s as there was a substantial demand for a
whole range of agricultural products. By 1960, the settlers had created a substantial plantation
sector of tropical export crops e.g. Tea, Coffee, Sisal, and a mixed farming centre of cereals,

5
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
livestock and other crops. These employed half the African labour force and accounted for four-
fifth of Kenya’s overseas exports. The crops grown by the settlers included the following:
Maize -It was one of the first crops to be experimented on. It was mainly for local consumption.
It had a large domestic market. Maize was often the principle element in farm income in the
highlands for many years. White farmers secured from the government guaranteed maize prizes
which automatically compensated them for rising costs. Therefore until 1958 maize farmers were
largely insulated from crop growing.

Potatoes -The settlers also experimented on potatoes which were mainly for domestic
consumption. Potatoes were the first crop to be exported from the protectorate.

Wheat - Lord Delamere, one of wealthier Britons, and a leader of the settlers experimented with
wheat, but encountered diseases. He experimented with rust-resistant wheat until research
produced ‘Equator’ a species named after Delamere’s farm. In 1909, Delamere formed a milling
company to make flour. This provided an incentive to the farmers. The wheat industry
established itself very slowly. The average yields of wheat per acre were never high. The
government assisted the industry by imposing a 20% import duty on imported wheat and flour.

Sisal -The settlers also pioneered sisal production. Sisal was growing in German East Africa
(Tanganyika) and was transferred from there to Kenya. It was first planted at Thika in 1904. By
1920 it had become the country’s second most important plantation crop.

Coffee - Despite its proximity to Ethiopia (widely believed to be the region from which coffee
originated), coffee was not cultivated in Kenya until 1893, when French Holy Ghost Fathers
introduced coffee trees from Reunion Island. The mission farms near Nairobi, the capital city of
Kenya, were used as the nucleus around which Kenyan coffee growing developed. Coffee of the
high quality Arabica type was first planted in Kenya at Bura in Taita Hills in 1893 and thereafter,
grown at Kibwezi, under irrigation in 1900, and at Kikuyu near Nairobi in 1904. From 1905-
1907 the department of Agriculture in Kenya had embarked on research to explore the possibility
of large scale coffee production. New plantations were established and new varieties of coffee
were discovered through research. At that time, there was no statutory control, in terms of crop
husbandry, production, processing, grading and marketing. The marketing of coffee was handled
by individuals and through rudimentary institutions between 1900 and 1933. In 1910 there was a
rise in the world price of coffee and more farmers began to invest in it. By 1920, coffee had
become Kenya’s most valuable agricultural export. Africans were forbidden from growing coffee
until the 1950, when its cultivation was allowed in a few African areas on an experimental basis.
The settlers feared that African farmers would be unable to control plant diseases. They also
wanted labourers on their farms. Upon request by coffee farmers, the colonial government
enacted the Coffee Industry Ordinance in 1932, and established Coffee Board (CB) in January
1933. The role of Coffee Board was regulatory and promotion, that is, licensing, inspectorate and
promotion.

Tea - Tea was discovered more than 5000 years ago, by an emperor Shen Nung in China. First
Tea (Camellia sinensis) seedlings were introduced to Kenya from India by one GWL Caine in
1903, and were first grown at Limuru in 1904. Commercial cultivation of Tea in Kenya began in
1924, when international tea companies established plantations around Kericho and other

6
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
suitable tea growing areas. Currently, Kenya prides itself as one of the world's leading black Tea
producers (3rd largest producer after China and India) and Kenya is the world’s largest exporter
of black tea. Kenyan tea is also one of the top foreign exchange earners, alongside tourism,
horticulture and Kenyan coffee. The task of managing the small scale holder lies with KTDA.
Currently KTDA has more than 62 tea factories serving over 500,000 small scale farmers
cultivating over 100,000 ha. Of all tea produced in Kenya KTDA produce over 60% while the
rest is produced by the large scale producer.
Rubber - The settlers experimented in rubber growing particularly on plantations near the coast.
It was an important export crop before 1914.
Pyrethrum - It became an important crop in the 1930’s due to the discovery that it could be
processed into insecticide. Today it is one of the most important export crops in Kenya.
Others: Hides and skins, ivory, bees wax, tomatoes and cape gooseberries constituted great part
of exports by 1909.

Stock Rearing
Lord Delamere developed stock breeding at his Equator Ranch at Njoro. He embarked on sheep
rearing, cattle ranching and dairy farming. He imported pedigree cattle, sheep and pigs from
Britain and carried out cross-breeding experiments with native breeds. Initially the animals died
of diseases such as East Coast Fever. Gradually cures were discovered and this enabled him to
extend stock rearing to Soysambu near Elementaita. An experimental farm was set up by the
government at Naivasha. It provided stock and tested animals to try to find out disease resistant
breeds. From 1904 some farmers imported pigs, but this industry only picked up after the
establishment of a bacon factory.

Problems Experienced By Settler Farmers

The white settlers experienced numerous setbacks i.e.
i. Slump in the economy in the 1920’s due to a fall in world prices for primary products e.g. sisal
prizes fell from £12 a ton. This caused many settlers to be bankrupt.
ii. Change from rupees to florins which were used as currency was harmful to the white settlers
because it devalued the currency. Florins – Italian gold coin at that time.
iii. The white settlers were fearful of being swamped by the Indians and they viewed Indian
immigration as detrimental to their farming interests. Hence they curtailed Indians plans to
secure land in the white highlands.
iv. Inadequate labour supply because Africans were unwilling to provide the lowly paid wage
labour, As noted by Ochieng, W.R. (1985).
“The Africans had very little incentive to leave their own land to work for the settlers who paid
them ridiculous wages.”
v. Lacked adequate funds with which to finance the experimentation and growing of crops at the
beginning. This is because most of the settlers who came to Kenya besides aristocratic (upper
class/ titled/noble) land owners e.g. the Arognas, Scotts and Delameres, were small scale farmers
who were grossly undercapitalized.
vi. The time-lag in building up herds of animals suitable to Kenya conditions was long, hence the
initial stock-breeding was a failure.
vii. The settlers were constantly attacked and threatened by the Maasai and the Nandi

7
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
viii. The problem of diseases e.g. wheat was affected by rust, while the cattle died of East Coast
Fever and the Sheep died of mineral deficiency in the soil. Example – Cobalt deficiency was
named Nakuritis disease
ix. The settlers faced the difficulty of grassland improvement especially for the imported breeds
of animals.
x. The initial farms leased by the settlers were often too small for successful white farming
leading to much settler agitation
xi. Settlers found it hard to grow crops in Kenya due to varying administration/economic policies
which were detrimental to settler farming activities
xii. Marketing problems due to price fluctuation of agricultural goods in the world market
xiii. Uncertain political situation in the country.
xiv. The pioneer settlers were inexperienced and lacked elementary skills of farming and it took
time to develop farming skills.

Consequences of Settler Farming

a) Africans were pushed into the reserves. Between 1903-1913 the Maasai were moved several
times to pave way for British settlers and their leader Lenana acquiesced. This was effected
through the 1904 and 1911 Maasai agreement. The creation of reserves for African peoples
became the standard practice.
b) Africans were recruited to work on settler farms for payment, not in cash but in kind. In 1907
a commissioner for native affairs was appointed to regulate the employment of Africans.
Africans who lived on settlers land had to give 180 days free labour per year and registration was
compulsory.
c) Through the Elgin Pudge 1908/1909 declaration, Indians were barred from the Kenya
highlands and Africans were compelled to leave their own farms to work on settler farms.
d) Settlers acquired a lot of political power and in 1906; they pressured the colonial secretary
into the setting up of Executive and Legislative council in Kenya.
e) A Land Board responsible for land allocation was set up and was dominated by the settlers.
f) The settlers’ dominance led to Indian agitation. The Indians were led by A.M. Jeevanjee, and
this prevented absolute settler domination and dashed their hopes of making Kenya a white
man’s country.

AFRICAN FARMING DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

Settler farmers did all they could to prevent the development of African farming and hence
African farming was characterized by the following challenges:-
a) It was mainly subsistence
b) The government spent very little money on African reserves
c) The reserves were grossly overcrowded leading to overgrazing and soil erosion
d) Africans used traditional forms of farming
e) Roads in the reserves were neglected making it difficult for Africans to access the market
f) African farming was restricted to inhospitable areas
g) Africans were not allowed to join co-operatives
h) Africans were restricted on the growing of certain cash crops and grade livestock. For
example, they were forbidden to grow coffee before 1950.

8
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Nevertheless the official government policy persisted in regarding African production as a
fortuitous and unstable contribution to the economy, for the European farmer was regarded as the
mainstay of the industry. In spite of all these setbacks, African farming proved more reliant than
settler farming. Maize became an important crop marketed by Africans on a large scale
paradoxically more than half the maize sold to the maize control board was provided by Africans
and not European farmers. It was a cash crop grown in many districts of Nyanza and Central
Province. Africans also grew simsim in Nyanza and it added more to the export trade than any
other single product between 1911 and 1913. The Luo also had considerable success in the
growing of groundnuts. By 1913 Africans were producing about half of the country’s exports
mainly by supplying hides and skins. The Kikuyu of southern Kiambu (Central Province)
supplied the burgeoning town of Nairobi with food crops such as potatoes, beans and maize. At
the Coast the Mijikenda supplied Malindi and Mombasa with most of its grains.

From independence in 1963 to the oil crisis in 1973, the agricultural sector expanded by
undergoing two basic changes:-First, widespread acceptance of private ownership (replacing
tribal ownership) and cash crop farming; Second, the success of intensive nationwide efforts to
expand and upgrade the production of African smallholders. Before World War II (1939–45)
ended, agricultural development occurred almost exclusively in the "White Highlands," an area
of some 31,000 sq km (12,000 sq mi) allocated to immigrant white settlers and plantation
companies. Since independence, as part of a land consolidation and resettlement policy, the
Kenya government, with financial aid from the United Kingdom, has gradually transferred large
areas to African ownership. European-owned agriculture remains generally large-scale and
almost entirely commercial.

9
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
2.0 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The word development, with respect to agriculture, refers to sustained improvement,
advancement or growth in the various facets of the agricultural sector, i.e. crops, livestock etc
which simultaneously enhance the standard of living of vast majority of the people especially
farmers.

Thus there could be agricultural growth without development. For example, when few farmers
especially the rich farmers or industrialists experience increased output and standard of living.
Agricultural development is therefore defined as a process whereby the per capita income of the
vast majority of the farming population increased over a long period of time leading to
improvement in the standard of living of farmers, with a resultant increase in the gross domestic
product of the country.
The four characteristics of agricultural development include:
Agricultural and income distribution.
Changes in rural institutions.
Reduction or elimination of poverty amongst the rural people.
Reduction or elimination of under and unemployment.
Agricultural development, is facilitated by the provision of certain social, health and educational
facilities and service such as rural infrastructure (good road network), clean regular water supply,
electricity, health, recreational and educational facilities for farmers and families. When these are
provided for the rural populace they become independent of the urban people and facilities. All
these are however, accompanied by appropriate development programmes to sustain the
development process. It therefore implies that agricultural development is not a revolutionary
process. It is a planned process of change which requires adequate planning.

APPROACHES TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

African agriculture remains largely traditional and concentrated in the hands of smallholders and
pastoralists. Given the dominance of rain-fed agriculture, yields are low and farmers can be
trapped in a cycle of poverty and food insecurity for decades.
Nevertheless, agriculture remains an important economic sector in Africa. Africa has abundant
arable land and labour which, with sound policies, could be translated into increased production,
incomes and food security. This has not materialized because of lack of consistent policies
and/or effective implementation strategies. Thus, despite agriculture accounting for 70% of the
labour force, over 25% of GDP and 20% of agribusinesses in most countries, it continues to be
given low priority.

10
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
The government, like in many developing countries was in the previous century bombarded with
different theories on agricultural development. Some of these theories/approaches have strong
ideological foundations, and many of them do not necessarily reflect the needs of developing
countries, but were rather developed to serve particular interests of the donors. The main
approaches were commercialization via cash crop production, integrated rural development, the
'basic needs' approach, structural adjustment, and sustainable development.

However, current approaches are more flexible, giving attention to favourable policies,
institutional aspects, farmers' participation, and environmental considerations. Strategies for
transforming African agriculture have to address such challenges as low investment and
productivity, poor infrastructure, lack of funding for agricultural research, inadequate use of
yield-enhancing technologies, weak linkages between agriculture and other sectors, unfavourable
policy and regulatory environments, and climate change.

Agricultural Growth and Economic Development

Decline in agricultural growth normally always impacts negatively on the country’s economic
growth. Very few countries have experienced rapid economic growth without agricultural growth
preceding or accompanying it. Agricultural growth stimulates economic growth in
nonagricultural sectors that in turn results in increased employment and reduced poverty. This
further stimulates demand for agricultural goods, acting as a growth multiplier in the agricultural
sector. There seems to be a positive relation between agricultural development and general
development. Despite this importance, relatively limited resources are invested in agricultural
development by national governments.

Why invest more resources in Agriculture?

The reasons why more resources should be invested in promoting agricultural growth include:-
a) to alleviate poverty through employment creation and income generation in rural areas
b) would help meet growing food needs driven by rapid population growth and urbanization
c) would stimulate general economic growth since agriculture is the dominating economic sector
d) would help to conserve natural resources
Agriculture definitely has a special role to play in relation to poverty alleviation and food
security because the majority of the poor are living in rural areas. Food security has been defined
to exist...
....when all people at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
(FAO).
This definition of food security has geographic and social aspects (all people), and as well as a
time consideration (all times) representing the problem of seasonal or occasional food shortage.
The term “physical access” refers to physical availability of food, and “economic access”
depends on people’s purchasing power. The definition also refers to food safety, nutrition and
food preferences.
11
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
CONDITIONS AND INTERVENTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
The challenges facing agricultural transformation in Africa have persisted despite numerous
commitments and interventions by African governments and their development partners. This
persistence is mainly due to policy inconsistency and insufficiency.
The condition for agricultural growth may, for the sake of simplicity, be summarized by the 'Five
I's'. These I's are 'innovation, inputs, infrastructure, institutions and incentives'. In addition to the
5 I’s, other interventions include addressing the chronic under-capitalization of agriculture
through real investment in the sector, amongst others. Below follows a discussion of these
factors.
i. Innovation:
Refers to generation of new technologies through research. An innovation is something original,
new, and important that breaks in to (or obtains a foothold in) a market or society. Technical
change has been found to be essential for agricultural growth. Agricultural research has an
important role to play here with regard to generation of new technologies. If agricultural
practices are not changed, it is unlikely that agricultural productivity will keep pace with
population growth. However, low income countries like Kenya invest much less in agricultural
research than high income countries. Experience shows that there has historically been a good
return to investment in agricultural research. The International Food Policy Research Institute
recommends that investment in agricultural research in developing countries should be increased
from the current level of about 0.5 % to 2 % of the Gross Domestic Product.

The private sector should be enabled and encouraged to undertake and finance research,
especially in commodities where it has a vested interest. Experiences are quite mixed with regard
to introducing new technologies to peasant farmers. Some of the main reasons why introducing
new agricultural technologies might be difficult are:
Inappropriate agricultural and economic policies
Small holder farmers in marginal areas are poor and risk averse (socio-economic
factors)
Discrimination and heavy taxation of the sector
low population densities and poorly developed rural infrastructure
High transport and transaction costs for inputs and products
Low investment in agricultural research
Low general education levels
Introducing productivity-enhancing technologies will be easier in a situation where there is land
scarcity. Where land is still abundant, farmers have little demand for yield-raising technologies,
since extension of the cultivated area is less capital-demanding than intensification – sometimes
also less labour-demanding. However, technology development is not an easy task. Farmers are
often conservative, and have good reasons to be so. Subsistence farmers are balancing on a very
thin lifeline, and are for this reason risk-averse. Research and technology development alone

12
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
cannot drive agricultural growth - it must be combined with appropriate policies. Changing
agricultural practices will require both enabling policies and technologies that are adapted to the
small-scale farmer. Modifying existing practices is usually more acceptable to farmers than
radical change. New technologies should be presented to farmers as a 'basket of options', rather
than as ready-made solutions (Chambers 1997, Pretty, 1995). A long term commitment,
flexibility in approach, farmers' innovations, and mutual learning, are key issues in relation to
the development of appropriate technology. Farmers' innovations have also become an important
element in the recent development of agricultural extension.

ii. Infrastructure:
Market-oriented approaches for agricultural development will only be possible where farmers
have relatively good access to infrastructure, such as roads or railways. Both main roads and
feeder roads to the villages are important in order to ensure supply of agricultural inputs, and to
enable marketing of agricultural products. Good roads to villages will also make it possible for
farmers to get a higher price for their products, and inputs, such as seeds and fertilizer, can be
made available at a lower price. Farmers also need to be better informed about how markets
function. Provision of enabling infrastructure and services would strengthen the linkage between
the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, especially in rural areas. This would help the
landless and the unemployed obtain jobs in agro-industries and associated small- and medium-
sized enterprises (SMEs) in rural and urban areas.

iii. Inputs: (Costs, delivery)

Efficient delivery systems are important, especially for modern farm inputs like fertilizers, agro-
processing, irrigation water, and credit. Supply of agricultural inputs is often a critical factor for
agricultural development. It is a paradox that, in the African countryside, Kenya inclusive, Coca-
cola is much more easily available than fertilizer. Development of small-scale businesses for
agricultural inputs (seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural equipment) should be given increased
emphasis. One of the essential inputs is credit. Credit can serve different functions as:-
enables the poor to weather economic and climatic shocks
removes the need to dispose of productive assets in order to ensure their survival, and
thereby ensures a faster return to full productivity and income generation after the shock.
permits the poor to finance investments in new agricultural and non-agricultural assets
and to add new farming technologies and farming methods.
Poor people often lack access to credit because they often lack collateral. If they obtain credit,
they will also often have to pay a higher interest rate. In recent years, many local credit and
saving schemes have been established in Kenya, including rural areas thanks to intervention of
several NGOs. This enables members (SSFs) in groups say 5-10 people to guarantee each other.
In addition, non-farm income may also be important in order for farmers to pay inputs.

iv. Institutions:

13
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
During the 1990s, increased emphasis has been given to institutional development and the
building of strong national, as well as local, institutions that can serve the interest of poor people.
Strong institutions are seen as an essential factor in order to promote agricultural development.
Institutions also play an important role in relation to natural resource management and
mobilization of local resources. Include Coast Development Authority, LBDA etc. Sound and
sustained institutions critical for transform agriculture. Agricultural related institutions such as
extension organization, farm organization, financial institutions, farmers’ associations,
cooperatives are essential for agricultural development. These institutions are established
primarily to give assistance of diverse nature ranging from financial to technical assistance to
farmer members. The assistance is aimed at improving the farmers’ techniques and overall
production, income, standard of living and general welfare. The institutions are either established
by the farmers themselves or through external force.

v. Incentives:
Conducive macro, trade, and sector policies that do not penalize agriculture just be in place in
order to promote growth. The major incentives are related to prices, markets, and property rights.
Land reforms may also be central to promoting agricultural development. When farmers are not
sure of their entitlement to the land, they will be less interested in investing in e.g. soil
conservation structures or in keeping trees on their farm. Therefore, addressing land policy
issues, especially security of tenure and equitable land distribution is important.

vi. Address chronic under-capitalization of agriculture

In many countries, the agricultural sector is in a situation of “a cow being continuously milked
and fed only enough for survival”. African governments should:
Implement the Maputo Agreement to devote 10 per cent of their public expenditure to
agriculture, in order to achieve the NEPAD/CAADP goal of agricultural growth of at least
6 per cent annually by 2015; and
Create an enabling environment for the provision of adequate financing and credit facilities
by both the public and the private sectors for the funding of agricultural production,
processing and marketing. This should include the promotion of microfinance institutions
and insurance schemes to serve farmers.

vii. Effective Agricultural Planning

Agricultural planning is a conscious sustained and systematic attempt made by either the
Government, non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) or private sector to utilize the available
agricultural resources of the country in order to benefit the farmers and the entire population.
Proper planning of all activities within the agricultural sector is therefore imperative for rapid
development of the sector.

viii. Education

14
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
To increase labour productivity and modernize agriculture, there is need to increase access to
education in rural areas in the context of the Millennium development goals (MDGs). Targeted
interventions in this regard should encompass:
Measures to promote universal primary education in rural areas and ensure gender
equality in school enrolment;
Support to poor households through income transfer, free school feeding programmes and
other measures to encourage them to send their children to school; and
Adapt curricula and provide training courses and extension services to upgrade skills for
improved farming practices and use of modern technology in agriculture and related
activities.
Education—primary and secondary—promotes agricultural growth. Literacy enhances the
productivity of the workforce, and makes it easier to master skills provided through on-the-job
training. Secondary education stimulates entrepreneurial capacity. Therefore, improving access
to education and technical skills development in rural Africa will undoubtedly enhance labour
productivity in agriculture and related activities..

15
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
3.0 AGRICULTURE AND KENYA’S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

STATUS OF AGRICULTURE IN KENYA

The agricultural sector continues to dominate Kenya's economy and although farming is the most
important economic activity in Kenya, less than 8% of the land is used for crop and feed
production. This is in spite of the fact that approx. 15-17% (i.e. less than 20%) of Kenya’s total
land is suitable for cultivation - has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and only 7 or 8
percent can be classified as first-class land.
The rest of the land is arid or semiarid. In 2006, almost 75% of working Kenyans made their
living on the land, compared with 80% in 1980.

Farming in Kenya is typically carried out by small producers who usually cultivate no more than
two hectares (about five acres) using limited technology. These small farms, operated by about
three million farming families, account for 75% of total production. Although there are still
important European-owned coffee, tea, and sisal plantations, an increasing number of peasant
farmers grow cash crops.
About one-half of total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production. Agriculture is
also the largest contributor to Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP). In 2005, agriculture,
including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24% of GDP, as well as for 18% of wage
employment and 50% of revenue from exports.

Although the expansion of agricultural export crops has been the most important factor in
stimulating economic development, much agricultural activity is also directed toward providing
food for domestic consumption. Kenya's agriculture is sufficiently diversified to produce nearly
all of the nation's basic foodstuffs.

The agricultural products are diverse and include cash crops such as coffee, tea, sugarcane,
pyrethrum, sisal, tobacco, cotton, coconuts and grains; horticultural crops including tropical
fruits, cut flowers, and vegetables. Staple crops include maize, pulses, millet, bananas, cassava,
sweet potatoes and potatoes.

Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most
successful agricultural production regions in Africa. In terms of animal production, cattle raising
for dairying and beef (for meat) as well as fish production is very important. Livestock
predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east, where a lot of emphasis is placed on
indigenous cattle rearing. In addition, hides, skins and wool are produced for both domestic
consumption and for exportation.

16
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Agriculture in Kenya has been combined extensively with forestry. The practice of agro forestry
is such that even more benefits can be derived from that limited 7% of arable land previously
noted. As such, another major product is lumber.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE TO KENYA’S ECONOMY

Agriculture contributes approximately 25% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and is the
single most important sector in the economy. Contribution from other sectors are: transport &
communication (approx. 18%), wholesale & retail (approx. 16%), tourism (approx. 14.9%),
manufacturing (approx. 11%).
Agriculture therefore remains the backbone of the Kenyan economy, employing 75% of the
national labour force (GoK, 2005). Over 80% of the Kenyan population live in the rural areas
and derive their livelihoods, directly or indirectly from agriculture. Given its importance, the
performance of the sector is therefore reflected in the performance of the whole economy. The
development of agriculture is also important for poverty reduction since most of the vulnerable
groups like pastoralists, the landless, and subsistence farmers, also depend on agriculture as their
main source of livelihoods. Growth in the sector is therefore expected to have a greater impact
on a larger section of the population than any other sector. The development of the sector is
therefore important for the development of the economy as a whole.

It is important to note that Agriculture has a high multiplier effect, which means that agricultural
investment can generate high economic and social returns and enhance economic diversification
as well as social development. In terms of sectoral linkages, agriculture supplies raw materials as
well as final consumer goods to other sectors. At the same time, increased agricultural output and
income expand markets for the output of other sectors such as manufacturing and services. This
explains why agriculture has a high multiplier effect on the economy, which ranges from 1.5 to
2.7% (UNECA 2006).

The multiplier implies that a one-dollar increase in agricultural income would lead to an increase
in aggregate income of more than two dollars on average Importance of agriculture to Kenya’s
economic development can be summarized in terms of food supply, job creation and
employment, provision of foreign exchange, raw materials and as a source of market for
industrial goods. These factors are discussed in details in the following section.

1. Food supply / Source of food –

The main contribution of agriculture is supply of food / source of food. Food is required for
growth, good health and increased productivity. Important food items in Kenya include maize
(staple food), wheat, potatoes, rice, beans, millet, sorghum, milk & milk products, meat, eggs,
beverages e.g. tea, coffee. Adequate food is required to feed a fast growing population, to ensure
a productive work force, and for a healthy population. Hungry people are inefficient in work, &
diseased. Food supply must keep pace with population growth to avoid hunger, malnutrition and
disease.

17
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
However, owing to improved standard of living and improved health services which have
increased life expectancy and reduced infant mortality, the population of the world is increasing
at a fantastic rate. This means increased demand for food, which emphasizes the importance of
agriculture. However, Kenya is not self-sufficient in many staple foods including cereals such as
maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, millet. The amount of food commodities produced locally in
relation to total food available reflects the degree of food self sufficiency. Kenya is self sufficient
in meat, milk, eggs, fish, seafood, vegetables, potatoes, cassava, and yams. There is need for self-
sufficiency in terms of food production. No nation delights in persistent dependence on other
nations for their food supply. Recent famine in Kenya (persistent food crisis) has been attributed
to the underdevelopment of the agriculture sector which forced the country to be a net importer
of food and agricultural products (e.g. wheat, Table 1).

Self-sufficiency in food production implies the following.

Production of food in adequate quantity and in sufficient quality to meet the nutrition
requirements of all classes of the populace thus preventing malnutrition, which is, exhibited as
Kwashiorkor in children and marasmus in adult.
It also means provision of food in adequate quantity so as to meet the caloric requirement of the
citizens at reasonable prices which majority of the citizens can afford. This implies little or no
food imports.

Table 1: Wheat production & Imports compared

2005 2006
Production 128.7 x 103 T 113.5 x 103 T
Import 621.8 x 103 T 650.4 x 103 T
In 2006 alone, Ksh. 8 billion was used to import wheat.
Self-sufficiency in food production ensures political, social and economic stability of the country
concerned.

2. Agriculture provide employment opportunity

Agricultural sector provides job opportunities for a large size of the population for all cadre of
workers mainly due to its large size compared with other sectors of the economy. Jobs are
provided in the farming business or enterprises ranging from self employment for farmers
(peasant farmers, commercial farmers, marketing of produce etc), farm laborers, agricultural
officers / extension officers, researchers, employment in agro-industries etc.

In agrarian societies with little or few modern industries, majority of the population has
agriculture as the main employment. In Kenya, agriculture provides 18% of wage employment
(labourers, skilled and unskilled) also self employment in agricultural enterprises; services in
marketing of farm produce, processing, distribution of seeds, fertilizers, production; employment

18
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
in agro-industries e.g. manufacture of inputs e.g. seeds, fertilizers, mechanical equipments,
machines etc. Examples of agro-industries offering jobs include:- Kenya canners, Grain millers,
Panaveg, Tea factories, Meat canning, Textiles, Fish / Nile perch processing factory etc.
Horticulture employs 2 million Kenyans directly, 80% of them small-scale farmers, according to
the Fresh Produce Exporters' Association (FPEAK)

3. Foreign exchange
Agricultural items /products produced over and above local demands are exported to earn foreign
exchange. This is of vital importance, because the country needs foreign exchange to purchase
certain capital goods and services which must of necessity be imported and can only be paid for
in foreign currency. Agriculture contributes 50% of revenue from exports.

The leading export earners are tea, horticultural produce and coffee. Also clothing accessories
and pyrethrum are important However, horticultural produce and tea are the main growth sectors
and the two most valuable of all of Kenya’s exports. On the other hand, imports are mainly
industrial or capital goods. The leading / major imports for which foreign currency is required
are crude petroleum, petroleum products, Industrial machinery, Motor vehicles, Plastics etc

Increased agricultural productivity depends on availability of capital goods (machines,

implements) which have to be imported using foreign exchange earnings from Agriculture.
Kenya is Africa's leading tea producer, and was third in the world in 2010, behind India and
China. Black tea is Kenya's leading agricultural foreign exchange earner. Coffee is Kenya's 4 th
leading foreign exchange earner, after tourism, tea, and horticulture.
Kenyan horticulture has become prominent in recent years. Fresh produce exported from Kenya
included green beans, onions, cabbages, snow peas, avocados, mangoes, and passion fruit.
Flowers exported include roses, carnations, statice, astromeria, and lilies. Kenya is the third
leading agricultural exporter of fresh produce, such as: cabbages, onions and mangos. Kenya is
the world's largest producer and exporter of pyrethrum, a flower that contains a substance used in
pesticides. The pyrethrum extract, known as pyrethrin, is derived from the flower's petals. The
growing demand for "organic" and "natural" pesticides has increased international demand for
pyrethrin, despite the existence of synthetic chemical substitutes. Kenya also produces sisal,
tobacco, and bixa annatto (a natural food coloring agent) for export.

4. Raw materials for agro-industries

Agriculture provides the raw materials for industries so that they can be processed into finished
products. Most of our industries are agri-based. They need agric-raw materials. Examples
include – cotton, other fibres, vegetables, maize, barley, wool, silk, hides, rubber, timber, fuel
wood. Agriculture generates industry since most agricultural products require some processing
before utilization. Also, some raw materials for industry are now synthesized and compete with
agricultural products. The provision of local industries with adequate raw materials also controls
excessive use of foreign exchange. Examples of Agro-industries in Kenya are: Breweries
19
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
(process barley); Delmonte in Thika – for pineapple, mango, other fruits; KCC – for milk; Rift
valley Textiles – cotton; Leather factories/Limuru Bata – hides, skins (livestock); EA Industries
– vegetables, fibres, among others.
5. Market for industrial goods
Agriculture consumes industrial goods as inputs in farming. The major inputs for agricultural
production include agro-chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, drugs, and medicines. Others
are agricultural machinery such as tractors, planters, combine harvesters, mowers etc. These are
mainly imported. Other products sold as inputs for agriculture are Manufactured feeds, Pangas,
slashers etc. By providing a large and steady market for industrial goods, agriculture plays an
important role in development of industries. Industrial expansion will depend on the capacity of
agriculture population to buy industrial goods. This is because majority of the population are
engaged in agriculture.

6. Source of government revenue / income and capital formation

Agriculture and forestry contributes highest income to government and supply surplus funds for
investment. The direct taxes paid by the large number of small scale farmers and few large scale
farmers constitute sources of income for the government, which is used for public investments
such as for building infrastructure, roads, schools, vehicles and accelerates pace of agriculture
development in the country. Besides, agriculture provides some sort of financial backing to other
sectors of the economy, through savings and the purchase of goods and services from these
sectors leading to capital formation.

20
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
4.0 CLIMATE AND SOILS OF EAST AFRICA

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF EAST AFRICA

The climate of East Africa is rather typical of equatorial regions. The region has a combination
of generally high altitude and the rain shadow of the easterly monsoon winds created by
Ruwenzori Mountains & Ethiopian highlands. This results in cool & dry conditions.
Most rains fall in 2 distinct wet seasons, one around April and the second comes around October
or November. This is attributed to the passage of the inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
across the region in those months.

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Climate is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time. The standard
averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose.
The weather elements include temperature, rainfall, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and
atmospheric particle count in a given place. The average and typical ranges of temperature and
rainfall are however the most commonly used to classify climates.

The term weather refers to the present condition of these elements over periods up to two weeks.
The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase
"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.
The factors influencing climate of a location are:-
i. The latitude – temperature decrease with increase in latitudes, equator experiences
highest heat intensity because sun’s rays hit latitude at right angles;
ii. Altitude -
iii. Terrain
iv. Ice or snow cover
v. Proportion of land to water
vi. Proximity to oceans and mountains (i.e. nearby water bodies and their currents) – the
distance from sea affects temperature of an area due to land and sea breeze effects. Warm
ocean currents raise temperature of the coastal regions
vii. Prevailing winds – blow across the tropical latitudes & lower temperatures in summer,
raise them in winter.
viii. Human activities – include industrialization, clearing of vegetation, exhaust from
vehicles, afforestation etc which affect the hydrological cycle, temps, wind, humidity.
Climate is an important influence on the nature of vegetation, the characteristics of the soils, the
crops that can be grown and the type of farming that can be practiced in any region. That is it
determines agricultural potential and practice.

THE TYPES OF CLIMATE

There are six distinct climatic regions in East Africa. These are:-
21
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
1. Modified Equatorial Climate of the Coast
It covers the coastal strip from Tanzania to Malindi in Kenya. It’s caused by the trade winds and
the effect of the Indian Ocean. The main characteristics of this type of climate are;
 Has rainfall throughout the year
 No dry season
 Has two seasons; long rains around March – May; and short rains around September – October.
 High average temperature, high relative humidity (RH), and high rainfall usually between 1000 –
1250 mm.
 The rainfall is mainly convectional

2. Modified Tropical Climate of The Kenya Highlands

This climate is also described as highland sub-tropical climate. It covers central Kenya region,
the Rift valley and western Kenya. It is found in high altitudes of between 2000 to 3000 m above
sea level (asl). It’s a cooler climate than the tropical continental climate. The main characteristics
of the climate include:-
 It is warm and wet with moderate humidity
 Temperatures are approximately 17-24°C
 It has high rainfall of 1000 to 2500 mm pa.
 The rainfall is mainly relief type, received throughout the year.

3. Modified Equatorial Climate of The Lake Victoria Basin

This climate is influenced by relief and the lake. Its main characteristics include
 It is a hot and wet climate
 The rainfall ranges between 1000 to 1600 mm received throughout the year
 Has two rain seasons; the long rains come between March - May; Short rains come
September to October
 Rainfall is convectional, falls in the afternoons accompanied by thunder & lightning.
 The highlands around the lake receive more rainfall than the plateaus.
 The temperature is moderate to high, i.e. 22-32°C.
 And the RH is high.

4. Tropical Savanna Climate

The tropical savanna climate is found in plateau areas and lowlands around Narok, Taita South,
and Kwale counties in Kenya. Its main characteristics include:-
 It has two rain falls and two dry seasons
 Receive moderate rainfall between 750 – 1000 mm, and rainfall is mainly convectional
 The temperatures are high throughout the year

5. Semi-Arid Climate

22
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
This climate is found in the north eastern part of Kenya. Its main characteristics include - It
experiences greater evaporation than precipitation and the moisture index is between - 20 to -40.
The lower the value of the index in any given area, the drier the area is.
 It’s hot and dry through the year
 It has very little rainfall of 250 – 500 mm
 The temperatures are high e.g. day temperature is 28 to 38°C

6. Desert Climate
This climate type is found in Northern Kenya. Aridity is a state of insufficient moisture due to
scarcity of rainfall resulting in scanty vegetation and is associated with high temperatures. Total
evaporation exceeds the actual amount of precipitation received. Its main characteristics are:-
 Receive very little rainfall < 250 mm/yr; moisture index (aridity index) is between -40 to
-57.
 Experience occasional floods caused by sporadic rains
 The temperatures are very high, ranging between 29 to 38°C
 The skies are cloudless, and this makes the area chilly at night with high daytime
 temperatures of about 45°C
 Farming in arid lands is only possible under irrigation.
 Nomadic pastoralism is practiced
 Vegetation is mainly shrubs & desert vegetation.
 Soil erosion by wind is common

SOILS OF EAST AFRICA

Soils supply many of the physiological needs of plants. These include water holding, providing
nutrients, support, temperature and aeration. The soil provides the environment for plant root
growth and development. Thus a basic understanding of the soil types and their major
characteristics is essential for successful crop production.
Definition
Soil is the basis of farming and can be defined as the loose material covering the surface of the
earth that provides a medium in which plants grow, i.e. from which plants obtain nutrients,
moisture, anchorage and other conditions for growth. The soil serves as a natural medium for the
growth of crops.

However, soils have been recognized as natural bodies with distinct morphology, i.e. consisting
of layers or horizons which differ in their physical, chemical and biological characteristics,
resulting from the effects of the soil forming factors. the prominent soil forming factors are
climate, vegetation, relief, parent material and time.

The soil consists of solid particles, water and air. The solid particles are made up of mineral
components such as sand, silt and clay and of organic components consisting of decomposed

23
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
plant and animal residues (organic matter). Clay and organic matter have the ability of adsorb
cations / nutrients, playing a crucial role to plant nutrition.

Water and air occupy the pore spaces between the solid particles. The amount of air is inversely
proportional to the amount of water in the soil. Soil nutrients are dissolved by water, so it helps
in the absorption of plant nutrients. The composition of the soil air is similar to that of the
atmosphere, has O2 essential for respiration of soil micro-organisms, for root respiration and
development. Soils contain microorganisms, which decompose plant and animal residues, and
microbes such as Rhizobium bacteria, which help certain plants / legumes to fix nitrogen from
the air.

SOIL FORMATION
Different soils have different profiles with clear horizontal layers, also called horizons. The
horizons differ from each other in their physical, chemical and biological characteristics,
including colour, texture, structure, consistency, presence of organisms, degree of acidity or
alkalinity (pH), etc. Soil profiles may take more than 100, 000 years to develop. Soil
development depends on following soil forming factors:
1. Climate. weathering forces such as rain, heat, ice and sunshine determine how fast or
slow the material breaks down and soil formation processes occur. In high rainfall areas
leaching tend to be high and soils tend to be acidic. At the other extreme, (low rainfall
regions), high ET results in salt deposits on the surface giving rise the so called saline
soils. Also high temperatures encourage high physical & chemical weathering of rocks
releasing minerals, high activity of microorganisms resulting in low humus content in
tropical soils. Wind erosion occurs in arid lands without vegetation and sandy soils
remain or are deposited.
2. Organisms. Plants and animals living in and on the soil influence soil formation. Include
vegetation, which supplies the soil with organic matter & protects the soil from rainfall
(raindrop impact), sunlight & wind; Soil organisms, the most important of which are the
bacteria & earthworms. Important for soil OM decomposition, also the way soil particles
get mixed in the soil profile and also human activities / interference or impact affect soil
development.
3. Parent Material. Refer primary material from which the soil is formed, for example
bedrock, organic material or deposits from water, wind or volcanoes.
4. Topography or relief. Location on a landscape such as altitude or exposure to the sun
influence the climatic impact on soils. Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water
than soils on the slopes, and soils on the slopes that directly face the sun will be drier than
soils on slopes that do not.
5. Time - Age of parent materials and soil. Time allows all of the above factors to act, over
hundreds of years. Soil profiles change permanently from weakly developed to well
developed over time.

24
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
The Soil Profile
Refers to vertical arrangement of soil layers or horizons. It can be observed from a roadside
embarkment or a pit excavation. The layers are generally visually and texturally distinct, i.e.
differ in color, depth, texture etc.
It gives a good idea of what to grow and where. The narrower the top soils, the younger the soil
and the fewer the crops it can support, especially perennial crops. Deeper profiles can store
sufficient nutrients, water for plant growth and important for firm plant support.

The Soil horizons can be summarized as follows from top to bottom

O-horizon – The "O" stands for organic. Thus The O- horizon is the uppermost layer, which
consists mainly of organic material (plant litter) in varying stages of decomposition and lies on
top of the A-Horizon.
A horizon - Top soil layer, dark due to OM accumulation. It is a layer of mineral soil with most
organic matter accumulation and soil life (most biological activity). It is in this horizon that most
of the roots and soil organisms are found.
E horizon - “E” stands for eluviated. It is used to label a horizon that has been significantly
leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates.
These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B
horizons.
Horizon B. This is the weathered layer which lies underneath the A-Horizon and commonly
referred to as "subsoil". This layer is mostly coloured brown by iron compositions and is still
penetrable by roots. It accumulates clay, iron, aluminum oxides and organic compounds through
leaching, a process referred to as illuviation. It is usually compacted and less aerated. It may
have hardpans – which impedes drainage and resist root penetration.
Horizon C - (partially weathered) parent material - This layer is little affected by soil forming
processes (weathering), and the lack of pedological development is one of the defining attributes.

25
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Horizon R - unaltered bedrock or Layer of large unbroken rocks.

MAJOR SOIL TYPES OF EAST AFRICA

Kenya has a very wide range of soils which resulted from the variation in geology (parent
material), in relief and climate. Soil resources vary from sandy to clayey, shallow to very deep
and low to high fertility. However, most of them have serious limitations such as salinity/
sodicity, acidity, fertility and drainage problems. The major soils used in agriculture are
Ferralsols, Vertisols, Acrisols, Lixisols, Luvisols and Nitisols.

The names of Kenya soils are based on the FAO/UNESCO (1976) legend, now the World
Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources (1998; 2006). The following major soil types and
their important characteristics are as described below.

1. Nitisols (Ultisols in USDA).

Are deep red and well-drained tropical soils with a clayey `nitic' subsurface horizon. Developed
in relatively rich parent material (and marked by shiny, nutty structure elements. i.e. they are
developed from volcanic rocks and have better chemical and physical properties than other
tropical soils. Nitisols are strongly weathered soils, are 150 cm or more deep and show evidence
of the movement of clay within the profile (i.e. clay illuviation). Have often high clay content
(more than 35%). Although strongly weathered, they are more productive compared with other
red tropical soils in the region. They are generally considered to be `fertile' soils in spite of their
low level of `available' phosphorus and their normally low base status. Have favourable physical
properties (e.g. high aggregate stability of the nitic, subsurface horizon). Soils are friable or very
friable & are porous through out. They have very favourable moisture storage capacity &
aeration conditions. Most Nitisols are acidic (pH < 5.5) due to the leaching of soluble bases.

Management and use of Nitisols

Are used for plantation crops and food production (e.g. banana, tea and coffee). Nitisols have
good workability due to their good internal drainage, stable soil structure and fair water holding
properties. However, due to high degree of phosphorus sorption, optimum crop production
require addition of P fertilizers & manure.

Occurrence / where found – Nitisols occur in highlands and on volcanic steep slopes, for
example in all counties of the central highlands of Kenya, Kisii, Kericho, + parts of Nandi,
Baringo, Kakamega counties, some areas of the Ethiopian highlands and around Mts. Kenya and
Kilimanjaro.

2. Ferralsols (= Oxisols, USDA)

Are deeply weathered, red or yellow soils of the humid tropics with a high content of
sesquioxides (Fe/AL oxides) and very low cation exchange capacity. They are very old, highly
weathered and leached soils, and therefore with a poor fertility, and fertility is restricted to the
26
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
top soil, as the subsoil has a low cation exchange capacity. Phosphorous (P) and Nitrogen (N) are
always deficient. Are dominated by low-activity clays, mainly kaolinite (1:1 silicate clays) (CEC
< 16meq/100g clay; low BS) and are virtually devoid of weatherable minerals.

Management and use of Ferralsols

Ferralsols have good physical properties (depth, drainage) but are chemically poor. Their low
natural fertility and tendency to `fix' phosphates are serious limitations. The natural fertility
restricted to the A horizon & related to the OM content. In times may be droughty because of
their low available water storage capacity. Liming and full fertilisation are required for
sustainable sedentary agriculture.

Occurrence / where found – in old geomorphic surfaces; on gently undulating to undulating

[Link] Kitale areas, Uasin Gishu, Embu, Kisii, Kwale, Kajiado & Siaya counties.

3. Andosols (Young volcanic soils)

Also referred to as volcanic ash soils. These are soils developed in volcanic material (volcanic
ejecta - ash, pumice, tuff]. Typically black soils of volcanic landscapes; from Japanese an, black,
and do, soil. Andosols occur in areas with steep slopes and high-rainfall. By rainfall over 1000
mm per year, Andosols are exposed to excessive leaching. They have low bulk density
(<0.9g/cm3), are porous / high permeability and have a high water storage capacity. They are also
acidic (low pH) due to the high leaching of soluble bases and to the high levels of Aluminium
(Al). These conditions favour P-fixation, making it no longer available to the plants.

Use / management
Their major limitation = strong phosphate fixation. Otherwise, Andosols are naturally fertile soils
with good physical characteristics i.e. easy to cultivate, good rootability and water storage
properties. To improve agricultural production, liming and the use of P-fertilizers is necessary.
Andosols are highly susceptible to erosion as they mostly occur on steep slopes. In these areas,
they are mainly used for tea, pyrethrum, temperate crops and dairy farming.

Occurrence /Where found – occur in most recent volcanic deposits in Kenya. Found in rift valley
Kenya, also Rwanda & Ethiopia. In Kenya, it is found in Nyandarua county (Aberdare range,
Longonot ), Naivasha , Nakuru / Rongai, Chyulu range, Mau escarpment areas.

4. Vertisols (Black cracking clays)

They are swelling and shrinking (churning) heavy clayey soils.
Are soils developed in expanding 2:1 lattice clays (smectitic / montmorrillonitic clays as PM). -
Swells when wet, shrinks when dry. In dry periods these soils develop wide, deep cracks.
- High CEC, high BS (Ca, Mg), low SOM, N content, the low permeability, drainage due to
swelling and susceptible to water logging.

27
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
- Tillage difficult when dry also hindered by stickiness when wet. Vertisols are productive soils
if properly managed.
- Are popularly known as black cotton soils. Because of the churning process, the A horizon is
deep, homogenous & thoroughly mixed.

Occurrence / where found - They are found in semi-arid and sub-humid environments, mostly
in rice growing areas e.g. Mwea in Kirinyaga county and Kano plains in Nyanza Province. Also
found in Uyoma in Siaya, Laikipia, Nanyuki, Athi plains, East Baringo, Yatta, Masinga areas,
some parts of Kitui county.

Management and use of Vertisols

Management practices for crop production should be directed primarily at water control in
combination with conservation or improvement of soil fertility.
Tillage is hindered by stickiness when the soil is wet and hardness when it is dry. The
susceptibility of Vertisols to waterlogging may reduce the actual growing period. Excess water in
the rainy season must be stored for post-rainy season use (water harvesting) on Vertisols with
very slow infiltration rates.

5. Planosols
Planosols are soils with a bleached topsoil over dense, slowly permeable subsoil. The light-
colored, surface horizon show signs of periodic water stagnation and abruptly overlies a dense,
slowly permeable subsoil with significantly more clay than the surface horizon.
Are imperfectly drained soils with a relatively coarse textured, light textured topsoil (part of
which is whitish /albic or E horizon) and heavy textured, compact & hard B horizon. The
transition between the 2 layers is abrupt. Are often waterlogged and have very low vertical &
horizontal drainage. Artificial drainage is the main management problem of these soils. Soil
fertility ranges from low to moderate therefore fertilization is needed for optimum crop
production.
Where found – extensively found in Kinangop plateau in Nyandarua, Sotik plateau around
Kericho, Timau, Londiani, Chepalungu, Muhoroni – Kisumu, parts of Kwale & Kajiado
counties.

Management and use

Root development hindered severely by oxygen deficiency in wet periods. The low hydraulic
conductivity of the dense subsurface soil makes narrow drain spacing necessary. Surface
modification such as ridge and furrow can lessen crop yield losses from waterlogging. Planosols
may be planted to paddy rice. Fertilizers are needed for good yields.

6. Acrisols, Alisols, Lixisols and Luvisols

These kinds of soils occur in the coffee zones in the sub-humid areas, on undulating to hilly
topography. They show an increase of clay content in the sub-soil (B-Horizon). The sub-soil is
28
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
often not very porous, impeding root spreading. They have a relatively low water-storage
capacity, compared with Nitisols. Acrisols and Alisols in wet areas have a low pH (acid), Al and
Mn toxicities and low levels of nutrients and nutrient reserves.
These soils have poor structure and need erosion-control measures. The soils respond well to
fertilizers (especially N, P and K) and to the use of soil organic matter.
• Alisols - soils with high cation exchange capacity and much exchangeable aluminium.
• Acrisols – are strongly leached, red and yellow soils on acid parent rock, with a clay
accumulation horizon, low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation
• Lixisols with a low cation exchange capacity but high base saturation percentage.
• Luvisols – are base-rich soils (USDA= Alfisols) with a distinct clay accumulation horizon, i.e.
are soils in which clay is washed down from the surface soil to an accumulation horizon at some
depth. Argic horizon / illuviation

Other soils, amongst others of minor occurrence and importance, in east Africa, include
7. Arenosols
Are sandy soils or soils developed in residual and shifting sands, found in desert areas, beach
ridges, inland dunes, and areas with highly weathered sandstone. have low fertility, very low
WHC, very low SOM, but well drained, good aeration, high bulk density.
Where found – coastal areas e.g. Kwale, Mombasa, Tana river, areas underlain by quartz rich
basement system rocks such as Kindaruma area, Machakos, Kombewa area in Kisumu & parts of
Siaya.
8. Fluvisols – are young alluvial soils which show stratification or other evidence of recent
sedimentation. Are soils developed in alluvial deposits; from L. fluvius, river. Has an AC profile.
Found in periodically flooded areas of alluvial plains, river fans, valleys and (tidal) marshes. pH
neutral, and rich in bases. Flood control, drainage and/or irrigation are normally required.
9. Cambisols (USDA = Inceptisols, young soils).
Soils with beginning horizon differentiation evident from changes in colour, structure or
carbonate content; from L. cambiare, to change. Are in a transitional stage of development, from
a young soil to a mature soil.'
10. Phaeozems (Prairie soils; USDA = Mollisols). These are the dusky red soils of prairie
regions with high base saturation but no visible signs of secondary carbonate accumulation.
They are dark soils rich in organic matter; found in wet prairie (grassland) vegetation.
11. Histosols –. Are organic soils, properties due primarily to organic matter, not mineral matter.
May be Peat or Muck soils. Have very high OM content in top soils. Develop under wet, boggy
or swampy conditions
12. Anthrosols – are man-made soils. These soils vary widely in properties and appearance and
can occur in any environment. Their properties are strongly affected by human intervention e.g.
cultivation, addition of other materials such as manure, intensive fertilization.
13. Solonchaks – are soils with a high content of soluble salts. Also called saline soils or salt-
affected soils. They are largely confined to the arid and semiarid climatic zones and to coastal

29
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
regions in all climates. 'ECe>15 dS/m; Excess salts affect plant growth due to high osmotic
potential, reduce water uptake by plants.
14. Solonetz – Are soils of ASALS with a high percentage of adsorbed sodium ions. Solonetz
that contain free soda (Na2CO3) are strongly alkaline (field pH > 8.5). Also referred to as `alkali
soils' and `sodic soils' . High levels of exchangeable sodium ions affect arable cropping, either
directly (Na-toxicity) or indirectly, e.g. dispersion of soil aggregates and structure deterioration.

30
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
5.0 AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES OF EAST AFRICA

MEANING OF AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) refers to the division of an area of land into smaller units, which
have similar characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and environmental
impact.
An Agro-ecological Zone is a land resource mapping unit, defined in terms of climate, landform
and soils, and/or land cover, and having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use
(FAO, 1996). The essential elements in defining an agro-ecological zone are:-
o The growing period or moisture supply – i.e. quantity and distribution of rainfall.
o Temperature regime (altitude is also important as it affects temp and relief
characteristics)
o Soil mapping unit - mainly soil fertility, erosion hazard etc
These parameters used relate to the climatic and edaphic requirements of crops, and to the
management systems under which the crops are grown.
The purpose of zoning - as carried out for rural land-use planning - is to separate areas with
similar sets of potentials and constraints for land use or development. Specific programmes can
then be formulated to provide the most effective support to each zone. There are several systems
for describing Agro-ecological zones in the Tropics. In Kenya two are used:
o The FAO classification for tropics generally, and
o An older Kenya version which is only applicable in Kenya.

THE KENYAN SYSTEM

The agro-ecological zones, also known as agro-ecological climate of Kenya are shown in the
figure and Table below. Kenya has a total area of about 582, 646 square kilometers of which
11,230 or about 1.9% is covered by water. The dry land mass is commonly divided into six agro-
ecological zones as indicated in Table 2.

Table 2: Agro-ecological zones of Kenya

Zone Approx. Area (km2) % Total
I. Agro-Alpine 800 0.1
II. High Potential 53,000 9.3
III. Medium Potential 53,000 9.3
IV. Semi-Arid 48,200 8.5
V. Arid 300,000 52.9
VI. Very arid 112,000 19.8
Rest (waters etc) 15600 2.6

31
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
From Table 2, we note that virtually 80% of the country lies in the semi-arid to very arid Zones
(ASALs), which are predominantly inhabited by the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. The
Kenya's ASALs also support about 7 million people and more than 50% of the country's
livestock population. These areas, which are also classified as rangelands, are unsuitable for rain
fed cultivation due to physical limitations such as aridity and poor vegetation.

Zone I here is equiv of zone II, above Table etc. = humid or high potential etc
Zone I
This zone has no direct importance in agricultural production other than being the source of rain
and some rivers/streams. It is confined to mountains and immediate surrounding such as Mt.
Kenya and Mt Elgon (= agro-alpine).

Figure : Agro-ecological zones of Kenya.

Zone II.
This zone is generally restricted to the highlands of Kenya between 1980 and 2700 m and occurs
as a forest or open grasslands. This zone is found in the surrounding of Mt Kenya (parts of Meru,
32
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Embu, Kirinyaga and Nyeri), isolated parts of the Rift Valley around Mau and Aberdares
mountains (e.g. around Kericho and Nyahururu respectively) and the surrounding of Mt Elgon
(e.g. around Kitale and Webuye). The minimum rainfall is 1000mm. (=high potential, also =
Zone I of the map = humid).

Zone III
This zone occurs mainly at elevations between 900-1800 m with a annual rainfall between 950
and 1500 mm. Trees are numerous here and somewhat of shorter stature than in Zone II. This
zone is the most significant for agricultural cultivation and several legume fodders are found here
in crop-livestock systems. It is also the most resettled by human. It occurs in the vast parts of
Nyanza, Western and Central provinces, good proportion of Central Rift-Valley (Nandi, Nakuru,
Bomet, Eldoret, Kitale) and a small strip at the Coast province.

Zone IV
This zone occupies more or less the same elevation (900-1800 m) as the previous or may be at
times lower. However, it has lower rainfall of about 500-1000 mm. This is typically represented
in surroundings of Naivasha, vast parts of Laikipia and Machakos districts vast parts of central
and southern Coast Province. It is the home of most Acacia trees and shrubs.

Zone V (arid = zone VI in map)

This zone is much drier than Zone IV and occurs at lower elevations. Annual rainfall is 300-600.
This Zone is prevalent in northern Baringo, Turkana, lower Makueni and vast parts of North
Eastern Province. Low trees and shrubs found here include Acacia among others.

Zone VI (very arid /semi desert, zone VII in map)

This zone is considered as semi desert and is the driest part of Kenya. Annual rainfall is 200-400
mm and is quite unreliable. The zone is found in Marsabit, Turkana, Mandera and Wajir
Districts.

Zone VII
This is represented by Chalbi desert in Marsabit district. The Chalbi is a salt desert with very
sparse salt bushes as the only vegetation found. It is vast and of beautiful scenery. Pastoralists
use it as a source of mineral lick for livestock, particularly during the rainy season.

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES – THE FAO SYSTEM

This is a classification of Kenya’s Agro-Ecological Zones according to FAO system. The AEZs
help make decisions on long term agricultural policy and to give advice to farmers in the
counties. The FAO system is a more differentiated system showing yield probabilities and risks
of particular crops /livestock.

33
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
1. The zone groups (e.g. UH) are temperature belts defined according to the maximum
temperature limits within which the main crops in Kenya can flourish.
Cashew and coconuts – for lowland (L)
Sugar cane and cotton - for the lower midland (LM)
Arabica coffee for the upper midlands (UM) (usually known as "Highlands" - the term
"midlands" is used here to denote their central importance).
Tea for the lower highlands (LH)
Pyrethrum for the upper highlands (UH)

Figure Agro-ecological zones of the tropics

The highest zone is high altitude rough grazing i.e. tropical alpine (or afro-alpine) vegetation.
The threshold values of annual mean temperatures have been established along similar lines but
supplemented by limiting factors for many crops e.g. mean minimum temperatures, frost, etc.

2. The main zones (e.g. UH 2-3) are based on their probability of meeting the temperature and
water requirements of the main leading crops. The name of the main zones refers to potentially
leading crops and many of them can be grown in other zones too, e.g.
o Wheat zones: UH 2-3; LH 2-4

34
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 o Maize zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-4; LM 1-4 (+5); L 2-4 (+5)
o Hybrid maize zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-3; LM 1-3
o Un-irrigated rice zones: L 1-3; LM 1-2
o Irrigated rice zones: L 1-6; (7); LM 1-6, (7)
o Coffee zones: UM 1-3
o Finger millet zones: LH (1-3); UM (1-3), 4; LM (1-3), 4, (5); L (1-3), 4, (5)
o Groundnuts zones: LM (1-2), 3-4; L (2-3), 4
o Cotton zones: LM (2), 3-4; L (2), 3-4
( ) means that in these zones the crop is normally not competitive to related crops (f.i. dwarf
millets to maize).

35
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
6.0 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE AND COMMERCIAL FARMING

Subsistence agriculture is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer’s
family. The farmer gets his food requirements and cash for basic needs. Commercial agriculture
is the production of food primarily for sale off the farm. It is geared towards profit maximization.
Five principal features distinguish commercial from subsistence agriculture:
 purpose of farming;
 percentage of farmers in the labor force;
 use of machinery;
 farm size;
 (and) relationship of farming to other businesses

Table 3: Comparison between commercial and subsistence farming

Commercial Agriculture Subsistence agriculture

1 Large scale farming is adopted Small scale farming is adopted
2 Mechanization is practiced Traditional farming is being practiced. Use
simple tools.
3 It is ideal for monocropping, intensive Ideal for mixed farming, bush fallowing and
animal production and fish farming shifting cultivation
4 Highly capital intensive which can be Low capital requirements which can be
gotten through the bank provided by friend and family members
5 Labour is highly specialized and Labour is from friends, family members and
Expensive cheap.
6 Marketing of product is specialized No special marketing skills are required.
7 Research into aspects of production No research activity is required
required
8 Highly scientific with no superstitious Highly traditional with superstitions in
belief. nature
9 Yield and often returns are high meant for Yields are low and meant for family
every body members
1 Processing of final product is common No processing of any form is practiced
0
1 It requires good record keeping so as to No record keeping is done and so no
1 make good decisions improvement is expected

36
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
SUBSISTENCE FARMING
This is a system of farming whereby a farmer cultivates crops and rears animals in order to
produce food for use by himself and his family only. In crop production, the subsistence farmer
concentrates on arable food crops such as maize, sorghum, millet, cassava, beans, groundnuts,
cowpeas etc.
In livestock production the subsistence farmer keeps a few cattle, goats, sheep, rabbits or pigs. In
the arid regions, the subsistence livestock farmer is mainly nomadic and moves with his animals
from place to place in search of water and pasture. When involved the establishment of
plantation agriculture, the subsistence farmer uses traditional methods. The farmer may plant
such crops as sugarcane, banana, tea, coffee and citrus trees.
Subsistence agriculture include the following:- Shifting cultivation, Intensive subsistence
farming and Pastoralism. Subsistence mixed farming is also practiced by smallholder farmers
especially in developing countries.

A. Characteristics of Subsistence Farming (see table above)

i. Labour is provided by the farmer and his family.
ii. Only small area of land is used e.g. 2 acres.
iii. Crude implements like hoe, jembe, panga /cutlass, digger, baskets are used.
iv. The produce from the farm are not necessarily for sale.
v. The yield is also very low compared to mechanized farming.

B. Problems of Subsistence Farming

i. Control of pests and diseases is difficult.
ii. Illiteracy of the farmers.
iii. The crude tools used by the farmers.
iv. Labour supply is erratic and unreliable.
v. The practice of subsistence farming wastes land and there is no means of replenishing
soil e.g. shifting cultivation which is migration to another fresh land.
vi. The process bores down farmers because the work is unchallenging and there is little or
no profit since the produce are not for sale

Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily,
and then abandoned. This system often involves clearing of a piece of land followed by several
years of farming until the soil loses fertility. Once the land becomes inadequate for crop
production, it is abandoned - left to regain fertility /reclaimed by natural vegetation.
It involves slashing & burning vegetation cover, cultivating for 3-5 yrs (average 3 yrs
cultivation) and abandoned after it loses fertility, and allowed to rest. The most common form is
slash-and-burn, but other cultivators (few) employ land clearing without any burning.
Common Features
 Hand tools
37
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
  No draft animals
 Long rotations
 Low population density
 Land owned by community
 The length of cropping & rest period depends on land pressure / population density &
tenure arrangements.
 Involve small plots, cultivated plots are scattered, cultivation done with simple tools.
 Practiced by primitive people - Shifting agriculture (slash & burn) is now mostly
practiced in the tropical world by primitive tribes in the forested highlands of:
o South America—Amazon basin
o Congo basin of Africa -, linked to animal husbandry wherever possible. The tsetse
fly limits cattle production
o SE Asia—sharp line between shifting cultivation and wet rice.
It is also still found in sparsely populated areas of Tanzania, Zambia and northern Mozambique
and in the empty area of the Zaire basin" (FAO, 1984).

The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to
the stability of shifting cultivation systems. This determines whether or not the shifting
cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time.
The main purpose of the fallow period in shifting cultivation is simultaneously to improve soil
fertility and the soil's capacity to resist erosion.

Advantages
 Shifting Cultivation is sustainable if the fallow is long enough.
 Land is left to regain fertility – soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation, nutrient
recycling, nutrients are extracted from the subsoil, soil fauna increases, acidity is reduced,
soil structure and moisture characteristics improve.
 large amounts of P & K are released into the soil in available forms on burning the
vegetation in ashes.
 It may reduce the incidence of soil-borne diseases, play a role in pest and weeds control
during fallow periods, wind and water erosion is much reduced.

Disadvantages
 Crop yields are always low, therefore not enough food.
 Not cost effective.
 Burning – leads to degradation of vegetation, loss of volatile nutrients e.g. C, N, and S.
 When plots are left fallow for long, this is economically wasteful (of land resource)
 Reduced biological diversity & Loss of valuable species of economic/ medicinal value.
i.e. destruction of forests constitutes a tremendous loss of valuable resources.

38
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
  Deforestation - More forest area brought under cultivation. Deforestation increases global
greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change.
 Rapid depletion of soil nutrients, increases in acidity, increased soil erosion, increased
local aridity and desertification.
 Low remuneration of shifting cultivation relative to its labour requirements and to
shifting cultivators’ labour supply. It is also low because he cannot get a good price for
his produce because there are no markets for it.

Intensive Subsistence Farming.

In this system, land is intensively cultivated & the crops are rotated. The population is high but
land is scarce. However, there is improvement of farming technology, manure & fertilizers are
used to increase production. Irrigation may be used e.g. in Kiambu, Kisii, Vihiga.

Problems of intensive Subsistence Farming

Production potential of land not fully utilized because of constraint of resources and
technology.
Population pressure leads to migration to ecologically marginal areas (e.g. semi-
arid) with severe degradation of environment.
Increase in population pressure results in increased subdivision of land &
settlement. This reduces productive land size.
Low yields are obtained.
Subsistence farmers (SHFs) are resource poor & risk averse.
Farmers are ignorant of new farming technology.
Use simple tools – hoes, pangas, resulting in low yields.
Pests and diseases – damage crops.
Lack storage facilities.

Pastoralism
Refers to subsistence herding of large animals.
Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern in which people make their living by tending herds of large
animals e.g. cattle (EA), horses (in Mongolia). In the mountainous regions of Southwest Asia, it
is mainly sheep and goats.
Pastoralism is characterized by extensive grazing – where animals exhaust pasture on a given
piece of land and then move to a different location in search of pasture & water. There are
essentially two forms of pastoralism, nomadism and transhumance.

(a) Pastoral nomads follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. The
timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the needs of the herd animals
for water and fodder (pasture, crop residues).
(b) Transhumance pastoralists follow a cyclical pattern of migrations that usually take them to
cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter.

39
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular
encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses.

Nomadic pastoralism
Practiced by – Maasai, Turkana, Samburu, Pokot, Boran, Somali, Gabbra among others.

Main features
Migrations conditioned by seasonal availability of grass, water & crop residues
Practiced in ASALS with low, unreliable rainfall
Land owned by community
Cattle kept as sign of wealth
Overgrazing is common due to overstocking
Disadvantages
There is overgrazing which causes degradation of vegetation & land. Soil exhaustion &
erosion discourage pasture growth
There is uncontrolled breeding
Deforestation due to overstocking
Cattle diseases & low productivity are common – the quality of pastures is low
Death of cattle due to drought & stock theft common.
There is frequent conflicts over available pastures & water – e.g. cattle rustling between
Turkana / Pokot.

Government Interventions to Improve Pastoralsim.

a. Established Kenya Meat Commision (KMC) – to improve marketing & income to
pastoralists.
b. Demonstration ranches – established to sensitize pastoralist on better methods of animal
husbandry.
c. Encourage cross-breeding
d. Provision of extension services to advice & offer veterinary services
e. Construction of boreholes & water points to provide water for livestock
The animals herded by pastoralists are rarely killed for family use alone. Fresh meat is
distributed throughout the community. This is the most efficient use of their animals because
they usually do not have the capability of adequately preserving meat. Not only does it ensure
that no spoilage takes place, but it also sets up numerous obligations to reciprocate within the
community. It promotes cooperation and solidarity. Often the slaughter of an animal is for a
ritual occasion so that its death serves multiple purposes. It feeds both the gods and the people.
Most pastoralists also get food from their animals without killing them. Horses, goats, sheep,
cattle, and camels are milked. In East Africa, cattle herding societies also bleed their animals.
The blood is mixed with fresh milk to make a protein rich drink.

40
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
COMMERCIAL FARMING
Commercial agriculture include the following;- Plantation farming (e.g. monocropping), and
Ranching (or intensive livestock farming), commercial dairy farming and specialized
horticulture. Commercial mixed farming is also practiced by farmers especially in developed
countries. This is a type of farming that is done on a large scale through the use of machinery
(mechanization).

Mechanization increases productivity in agriculture. Most farm operations are mechanized.

Bulldozers for land clearing, Tractors and tractor mounted implements (ploughs, harrows) are
used in tilling the soil, planters, ridgers, spraying machines and combine harvesters are used. In
livestock farming, incubators, instead of natural hatching of eggs by fowls, egg graders and
milking machines are used. These machines make work in the farm easier, faster and less
burdensome.

Major features
Large areas of farmland are required.
Requires the use of machinery like cultivators, tractors, ploughs, harrows, planters,
harvesters, etc.
It is very expensive to practice.
Labour is both manual and mechanical and specialists are required, in some stages of
production.
The returns are very high at harvest time.
Marketing of products is specialized and sometimes advertisement done.
It involves a lot of research into the various aspects of production.
It requires good record keeping so as to make proper and adequate decisions.

Commercial plantation Farming

Plantations / estates – refers to the cultivation of cash crops on large pieces of land. It was
introduced in Kenya by Europeans. The aim is to produce farm products in large quantities for
sale, for cash income and export. It involves specialization in production of one crop type,
referred to as monocultures, such as sisal plantations (in Marigat, Taita/Taveta), Tea, coffee,
sugar, cotton, wheat, maize plantations.

The plantations are large and situated in thinly populated areas.

Advantages
a) Only one crop is grown –leads to specialization. This leads to increased yields.
b) Adequate food security for domestic and for export can be achieved. Products are
exported & sold in the world market to earn the country foreign exchange.
c) Employment creation of workers in plantations.

41
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Disadvantages
a) Capital intensive /high capital requirement.
b) Soil fertility depletion – soil exhaustion, erosion esp. for row crops. Large quantities of
fertilizers are used and this brings environmental concerns – groundwater nitrate
pollution.
c) Risk of huge losses if world prices fall.

Monocropping
Monoculture - one crop grown in a field at a time.
The desire for food products in developed countries that look and feel a certain way has led
farmers to plant specific types of crops rather than a diversified lot. This procedure, known as
monocropping, is very chemical intensive.
The advantages of monocropping e.g. of maize include ease of mechanization, weed control and
use of fertilizers. Maize yields up to 10 t /ha have been obtained with inorganic fertilizer inputs
of 600 – 1000 kg of nutrients per ha. Thus it gives higher yields, and more efficient. The high
yields under maize monoculture is important for food security demands of the nation, and for
export markets. It also stimulates economies and provides jobs for the working classes.
While productivity of this is very high its sustainability in terms of soil biology and productivity
and economic viability is starting to be questioned.

Some of the disadvantages include

 Soil nutrient depletion and erosion; -Nutrient imbalances in soils
 Invasive species introduced and/or established;
 Increased susceptibility to plant disease epidemics - Monocrops favor disease
development
 Loss of seed biodiversity and plant genetic resources.

Ranching
This refers to extensive commercial grazing, an economically advanced form of pastoral
nomadism. Ranching is defined as the commercial keeping of large herds of animals. The
difference between the pastoralists and the ranchers is that the ranchers are not subsistence
pastoralists but they are businessmen who produce a commodity for national and international
markets
Noted: Pastoralists & subsistence farmers own ~95% of beef animals; ranching only 5%.
Ranches are found in the Rift valley – Nakuru county, Kajiado, TransNzoia, Coast –Kilifi and
Kwale counties.

Main features:
Practiced in confined, enclosed grazing areas.
practiced in drier regions to better utilize poor vegetation & soils
there is improved pastures, disease control, supplementary feeds, water provision
42
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 most ranches keep cross-breeds e.g. Zebu, Boran.
Major slaughter houses are in urban centres e.g. Dagoreti, Miritini – Mbsa, Ksm, NKR,
Eldoret.
The main meat processing factory – the Kenya Meat Commission (KMC) - at Athi River,
which markets & supplies meat for export & local consumption (Individuals with
butcheries market own meat products).

Mixed Farming.
Mixed crop-livestock farming systems are characteristics of large areas of Africa. Crops and
Animals (livestock) are kept on the same farm at the same time. It is mutually beneficial.
Commercial crops & livestock mixed systems are associated with densely populated areas. The
animals involved include cattle, goats, sheep, poultry etc and provide ploughing, milk, manure,
bride wealth, savings, emergence sale. The crops commonly involved include maize, wheat, Irish
potatoes, beans, barley.
Advantages
 Animals feed on crop residues - The stover from maize is the source of feed to livestock
during the dry season when there is shortage of high quality fodder
 Manure from livestock help maintain soil fertility for increased crop yields. Manure is an
important source of nutrients, especially N, P and K. increase soil organic matter, water
holding capacity, and infiltration rate.
 There is effective use of farm resources – land; labour
 Farm income (& profitability) is increased through sale of farm products
 Security against total loss – if one enterprise fails, for instance due to disease, drought,
the farmer gets income from the other alternative enterprises
 Total farm productivity is increased.
 Livestock is a form of capital to buy inorganic inputs for crop (e.g. maize, wheat)
production
 Livestock can also provide transport to farmers to carry inputs and outputs from the
markets

43
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
7.0 FACTORS LIMITING CROP AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN KENYA
The factors limiting crop and animal production in Kenya are numerous, and are more or less
related to traditional farming approaches. Poverty and the general economic challenges of the
country.
The strategies for transforming Kenyan agriculture have to address such challenges as low
investment and productivity, under-capitalization of agriculture and research, low land and
labour productivity, inadequate investments in irrigation, inadequate use of mechanization and
agro-chemicals, poor infrastructure, weak institutions and corruption, lack of funding for
agricultural research, inadequate use of yield-enhancing technologies, weak linkages between
agriculture and other sectors, unfavourable policy and regulatory environments, climate change,
among others. This chapter discusses these and other challenges.

7.3.1 Aridity and inadequate investment in irrigation.

About 80% of the country’s land area is arid and semi arid with low potential for agriculture.
Irrigated agriculture has not kept pace with food security needs and not been taken seriously in
the past by the government and remains underdeveloped. Some arid soils such as Solonchaks are
saline and affect crop growth, and require reclamation even under irrigated agriculture. Pastoral
communities lose many of their cattle to prolonged drought in arid and semi arid areas due to
lack of pasture and water supplies.

7.3.2 Widespread subsistence, traditional farming and poverty.

African agriculture remains largely traditional and concentrated in the hands of smallholders and
pastoralists. The farmers are poor and risk averse (do not invest in yield enhancing technologies).
Given the dominance of rain-fed agriculture, yields are low and farmers can be trapped in a cycle
of poverty and food insecurity for decades. This is at the expense of embracing commercial
agriculture development, marked by specialized & high productivity, important for both
domestic food security & export market. Use of Poor Tools is a common feature for smallholder
subsistence farming, examples being the hoe, jembe, cutlass, rake etc.

7.3.3 Land tenure and land reform.

Communal land tenure discourages investment on land. Land subdivision for settlement and
urbanization in fertile high potential areas has negated any gains in intensive smallholder
farming in high potential areas (SHFs till smaller units / land resource poverty increases). This
sis because land owned by inheritance encourages land fragmentations over generations. Increase
in population puts pressure in land use, increases the various alternatives to which land can be
put. Addressing land policy issues, especially security of tenure and equitable land distribution is
a priority, will make land available to prospective and genuine farmers. Improving land use by
restricting the encroachment of cultivation into fragile ecosystems, rampant urbanization, and
sub division for settlements are key to agriculture development.

44
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
7.3.4 Unreliable rainfall and climate change
Over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture is a challenge for development. Unreliable rainfall often
leads to crop failure and decreased yields. It affect planning for field operations such as when to
plant by farmers. Of late this has been attributed to such factors as climate change resulting from
environmental/ forest degradation (increased global warming due to increased emission of green
house gases) as well as destruction of water towers etc. the government should invest in
irrigation, and research in climate change adaptation.
Both drought and flooding destroy crops and livestock and reduces yields.
7.3.5 Declining soil fertility and land degradation.
Continuous farming without nutrient replenishment and rampant erosion, common in African
smallholder farms, depletes soil nutrients leading to decreased land productivity. In smallholder
subsistence farmers, low inorganic fertilizers use are related to high cost / expensive and low
availability in rural areas. This leads to poor crop yields. But many soils in high potential areas
are acidic and may limit crop yields, aggravated by continuous monocropping and N-fertilizer
use.
Soil degradation or erosion is mainly caused by loss of vegetation, land exploitation, especially
overgrazing and shifting cultivation. insecurity of land tenure and lack of aggressive promotion
of soil and water conservation increases land degradation. Increased encroachment into marginal
fragile ecological areas, converting to intensive agriculture use encourages land degradation.

7.3.6 Lack of capital and under-capitalization of agriculture and research.

Low investment in agriculture by government and by the individual poor farmers leads to low
crop yields and productivity. This affects uptake of yield-enhancing practices and techniques.
Yield-enhancing practices include mechanization, use of agrochemicals, (fertilizers and
pesticides), and increased use of irrigated land.
Many farmers are resource poor especially SHFs. They lack capital, and credit to buy inputs –
fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding seeds, and for real agricultural investment / development.
Moreover, commercial agriculture requires substantial capital to acquire land, improved breeds,
equipment etc and the lack of such capital due to poverty ensures farmers continue to engage in
subsistence farming and its perpetuation. The government should invest at least 10% of their
public expenditure to agriculture in order to enhance food production and accelerate economic
transformation. The government should create an enabling environment for the provision of
adequate financing and credit facilities by both the public and the private sectors for the funding
of agricultural production, processing and marketing. This should include the promotion of
microfinance institutions and insurance schemes to serve farmers.

7.3.7 Inadequate market access and poor infrastructure

Promoting agricultural investment and productivity requires improved market access and
adequate service infrastructure, including better road networks, communication, rural
electrification and water supply. Access to inputs, and their pricing (seeds, fertilizers, drugs etc)
45
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
and access to markets for farmers produce in rural areas all depend on good infrastructure,
eliminates exploitative middlemen. Besides, they are required to start agro-processing, value
addition for increased incomes by SHFs.
Improved rural infrastructure and marketing are essential to enhance the competitiveness of our
agricultural products, for improved agro-industrialization and domestic and regional trade by
strengthening the linkage between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, especially in
rural areas. This would help the landless and the unemployed obtain jobs in agro-industries and
associated small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in rural and urban areas. Also tariffs -
competitive power and road/rail freight tariffs are important.

7.3.8 Poor Storage and Processing Facilities

Farmers experience high post harvest losses due to poor storage or inadequate storage facilities.
Exploitation by middlemen due to lack of proper storage facilities reduces profits to farmers. The
prices of agricultural products fall too low immediately after harvest, because the farmer cannot
store or process them properly till they can have better prices. Consequently, farmer may not be
adequately rewarded for his labour. Most agricultural produce are easily perishable and require
preservation / processing / proper storage or else entire products are offered for marketing
immediately. The government should improve or provide storage and processing facilities like
crib, barns, shelters millers, grater, etc. excess farm products e.g. recent milk glut should also be
purchased by the government so as to prevent glut and bring them to the market during scarcity.

7.3.8 Government policy and lack of incentives

Unfavorable policy and regulatory environments will not spur agricultural growth. Poor
incentives related to prices, markets, and property rights such as high taxation, liberalized
fertilizer markets, lack of subsidy for farm inputs, security of land tenure discourages production
activity. The government must provide incentives and support to farmers and agro-businesses,
including improved access to credit, subsidized fertilizers (currently doing this), low taxation
regimes, promotion of entrepreneurship and development of technical skills in general.

7.3.9 Poor crop husbandry practices and low agriculture education.

Lack of adequate knowledge and practice of good farming methods is a hindrance to agriculture.
Due to low education of many farmers, they plant late, don’t control weeds, use poor spacing,
don’t control diseases and pests, cannot recognize diseases etc. Education, especially agricultural
education and technical skills development programmes, including knowledge on value addition,
especially targeting women farmers will improve labour and agricultural productivity.

7.3.10 High cost of inputs and Lower prices of agricultural products.

Cost and access to affordable agricultural inputs e.g. improved seeds / livestock, fertilizers,
pesticides, drugs, farm machinery is a problem to many SSFs. In contrast, agricultural products
are often lowly priced and this leads to low income and profits to farmers, and results in low
motivation for further investment in agriculture.
46
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
7.3.11 Inadequate extension staff and weak research dissemination and adoption.
The government has not provided adequate skilled personnel to advice farmers, i.e. to improve
research technology dissemination and adoption. Inadequate use by famers of yield-enhancing
technologies such ISFM (integrated soil fertility management practices) are linked to inadequate
extension (lack of staff or effective approaches / extension programs). This leads to delay in
technology transfer, and farmers do not apply recent technology in farming.

7.3.12 Low land and labour productivity.

Low land productivity is due to low use of irrigated land, low use of fertilizers and machinery,
improved seeds, livestock etc. Labour productivity is lower in Kenya mainly because most of our
agriculture is manual or semi-mechanized. Low labor productivity is due to lack of knowledge /
education and technical skills (esp. for female farmers in rural areas who make majority), other
factors are current the production system (subsistence / small scale), weather, lack of
complementary inputs such as improved seeds and fertilizers, and the use of modern faming
technology.
7.3.13 Fluctuation in market prices.
World market prices for agricultural products often fluctuate and farmers occasionally incur huge
losses when the prices of major cash crops such as coffee, tea, horticultural crops fall in
international markets.
7.3.14 Cultural, traditional beliefs / religious prejudices.
Muslims for example do not encourage pig production for pork, whilst their Christian
counterparts do not engage in tobacco growing, regardless of ecological potential and
profitability.
7.3.15 Psychological factors/ attitudinal setbacks and rural urban migration.
Many able bodied men, well educated do not want to engage in direct agricultural production as
farmers; they prefer white collar jobs in cities even after acquiring agricultural production skills.
They regard agriculture as a dirty profession.
7.3.16 Pest and diseases.
Prevalent pests and diseases cause serious yield losses to farmers and are expensive to control.
Expenses incurred increase cost of production. Examples include Coffee berry disease, East
coast fever, Newcastle, wheat rust etc. storage pests e.g. weevils etc.
7.3.17 Natural calamities
Include hailstorms, floods, droughts. East Africa is prone to periodic Elnino floods; Lanina long
droughts. These are destructive to crops, and other agricultural enterprises. It also disrupts
settlement and economic / farming activities. Farmers should be trained in early pests/ disease
identification and control, including which chemicals to use. Credit to purchase pesticides for
SHFs is important.

47
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 8.0 AGRICULTURE AND ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITION OF ENTERPRISE:
Any organized effort intended to return a profit or provide a service or product within an
economy; a business enterprise. Agricultural enterprise in therefore any crop or livestock
business / project or business dealing in crop or livestock production or service.
It is a major source of job creation and contributor to economic development. Like other
businesses, it takes the risks to start up, expand, and improve agricultural enterprise. It therefore
requires good management skills or entrepreneurship.
Agriculture Enterprise development – involves all activities done to expand, enlarge, improve,
locate, or start up an agriculture enterprise but is exclusive of marketing, sales and other efforts
aimed at building its customer base.
Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organizations or revitalizing mature
organizations, particularly new businesses generally in response to identified opportunities.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SETTING UP AN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE

Agricultural enterprise is a business activity (agricultural) carried out by a person with an aim of
getting profit e.g. dairy keeping, vegetable growing.
The following factors should be considered before starting.
What to produce
How to produce – primary production & value addition
Factors of production – are available resources - land, capital, labor, entrepreneurship
For whom to produce – target population & markets

8.4.1 The availability of land

In locating any agricultural enterprise, one needs to think about availability of land, adequate to
set up the enterprise and for future expansion e.g. for a zero grazing unit, there should be enough
land for fodders & pastures

8.4.2 Initial capital and access to credits.

Consider the amount of capital depending on the type of enterprise to start. The source of that
capital should also be considered, either from a financial institution e.g. loans from banks or
owners contributions or savings.

8.4.3 Environmental factors.

The environment should be conducive for the agricultural enterprise you want to set up. Consider
land suitability for the particular crop / livestock enterprise – i.e. climatic factors such as rainfall
(or water availability for irrigation), temperature, wind, humidity conditions, edaphic factors,
biotic, and topography. These factors determine the success of the agricultural enterprise.
48
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
8.4.4 Skills available.
Consider the availability of labor, that is, if skilled and unskilled labor is available in the locality.
Also consider the skills you possess (farmer’s own knowledge & skills) and skills you will need
to start and operate the enterprise. Technical skills include farming methods, fertilizer / pesticide
rates/dilution and application, keeping farm records, machine milking, observing disease signs.
Managerial skills required include labour management. etc. The farmer may need some training
before starting an enterprise of his choice.

8.4.5 Self analysis / personal factors.

Do a SWOT analysis. Consider your strengths e.g. skills required / possessed, weaknesses,
opportunities and Threats - know your competitors.
8.4.6 Consider size and scope of enterprise, anticipated management & ownership.
A smaller enterprise is more flexible while a large enterprise or those with wider ownership will
tend to be organized as partnerships or co-operations.

8.4.7 Infrastructure and security

The Location of the enterprise in relation to existing infrastructure and security is very important
for ease of access, transport, secure environment. Good infrastructure includes good roads,
telephone, electricity, water, social amenities. Good infrastructure facilitates movement of
materials to the factory and products to markets. It also facilitates the well being of employees in
an enterprise and good networking system between the employee, employer, enterprises and the
customer. Good roads facilitate cheap, timely, efficient marketing.
Power and water are considered necessary for production and for workers domestic
consumption. Communication has improved with the use of computers and mobile phones where
messages take a short time to reach destination through email and internet. This requires
availability of electricity and reliable network at all times.
Security or safety of an area is important. Any agricultural enterprise should be located where
it’s safe from possible criminal or banditry attack.

8.4.8 Raw materials availability.

The availability of local materials help to reduce cost of raw materials is vital. Raw materials are
things which are needed to make finished goods. Availability, quantity, quality and cost or prices
of materials should be considered. Enterprise should consider the transport cost of raw materials
to the site of enterprise / factory in relation to the transport cost of finished goods to the market.
If it’s cheaper to transport raw materials, enterprise should be located near the market. If raw
materials are bulky, perishable, locate factory / enterprise near source of raw materials.
Perishable goods must be processed within a short time after harvesting, extraction. Fruits,
vegetables, fish, meat, & milk plants should be located near the source of raw materials. Raw
materials like pineapples used in fruit canning factories in Thika (Delmonte) are grown by

49
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Delmonte in Thika. This indicates that factories are located where there are raw materials. Sisal
factory in Kilifi are located near the sisal plantation in that area (bulky).

8.4.9 Availability of Market for products or marketability of products.

This will determine the viability of the enterprise. Market refers to the availability of customers
who requires the finished product. i.e. customers makes a market. An entrepreneur should
therefore assess the availability of customers before starting a business. Any agricultural
enterprise should be located where there is demand for the product, i.e. near the market
especially where products are perishable. Agricultural enterprises which are far from the
consumer incur extra cost in transportation and administrative overhead. Example in a
community where staple food is Githeri, beans & maize enterprise, grocery is appropriate; if fish
– then fish farming can be viable.
8.4.10 Technology available (to run the business) and its costs.
The entrepreneur must consider how to acquire the appropriate technology and how it will be
applied in running enterprise. Consider appropriateness, cost of technology and how the business
would suffer incase the technology becomes outdated.

8.4.11 Socio-economic and political factors – in that environment.

Socio-cultural activity / religious beliefs is important. For example, Muslim do not eat pork, and
any pig enterprise would not prosper, not be viable; Christians would not grow tobacco etc.
Cultural practices of a community affects agriculture enterprise – some rely on meat and milk;
some on fish, others on crops. Consider to some extent the economic status of the surrounding
communities and their occupational activities.

8.4.12 Market analysis – know your competitors in the area as this will facilitate production of
higher quality goods.

8.4.13 Government policy and legal requirements.

It is an aspect of the government to dictate the location of a given enterprise. But the government
may also require certain type of enterprise to be located in certain areas only. Government policy
aims at ensuring equitable national development. E.g. in a policy that aims at developing the
rural areas and curbing the rural urban migration, the government incentives like the Kenya
Industrial Estates (KIE) and the Rural Enterprises Fund (REF) for giving assistance to rural
industries have been put in place. Government policy on land use & productivity, legal, health
regulations, tax operations, quality inspection & standardization are all important factors to
consider. Quality control (KEBS) – Policy enacted and enforced to ensure production of high
quality goods. Another aspect of government policy is taxation. Increase in taxation can lead to
lower profits and so discourage investment. Import duty of competing commodities can be used
to encourage local investment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEURS

50
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
The following are important characteristics of a successful entrepreneurs.
Personal Resourcefulness - is the belief in one’s own capability for initiating actions
directed towards creation and growth of enterprises
Achievement-Orientation - facilitates the creation and development of enterprises in
competitive environments. are known to seek and assume high degree of personal
responsibility, set challenging but realistic goals, work with concrete feedback, research
their environment and choose partners with expertise in their work Such characteristics
contribute to successful completion of tasks that they venture to take up.
Opportunity-Seeking - include one’s ability to see situations in terms of unmet needs,
identifying markets or gaps for which product concepts are to be evolved, and the search
for creating and maintaining a competitive advantage to derive benefits on a sustained
basis
Innovativeness - refers to creation of new products, markets, product-market
combinations, methods of production and organization, and the like that enable the
enterprise to gain competitive advantage in the market.

VALUE-ADDITION AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN SMALLHOLDER AGRICULTURE

Definition and types of value addition.

The term value addition refers to the additional value created at a particular stage of production
or through image and marketing.
It is defined as the process of changing or transforming a product from its original state or form
to a more valuable state - with a longer shelf-life through processing. For example milk can be
processed into cheese, yoghurt, or mala. i.e. it increases consumer appeal of an agricultural
commodity.

Agricultural producers receive a much smaller portion of the consumer’s money than do food
processors, especially those who produce brand name items. Capturing those additional shillings
or adding value to the farm or ranch products is the goal of many producers. It allows farmers to
benefit by being part of a specialized supply chain and affords them the chance to receive a
larger share of the consumer’s money. Value addition is an alternative production and marketing
strategy that requires a better understanding of the fast changing food industry and food safety
issues, consumer preference and effective management. It is usually producer driven. Producers
will think of themselves as producing products for end users instead of producing only raw
commodities. They have a challenge to be responsive to consumer demands by producing what
is desired.

Value addition does not only refer to processing but includes other activities such as drying,
pasteurizing, transport, grading, standardizing, branding / packaging, labeling, advertising,

51
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
storage, delivery, blending with other products. These enable farmers to create a greater value to
certain kinds of products.
Deals with all those processes that involve transformation of raw agricultural products as
produced on the farm to consumer goods. Transport in agriculture marketing means raw
materials are taken to factories for processing as a way of adding value to a product so affects the
price. Processing involves preparation of the produce for consumption. It may include physical
transformation, i.e. from original state to a state in which it can be used such as transforming
cotton into cloth. It is Important because consumers want the produce in a different form from its
original state (physical state). Also, meat animals are slaughtered, dressed and divided into
convenient cuts before being sent to consumers. Also milk is pasteurized, bottled or converted
into butter, cheese before being put into retail storage for consumers. All these are examples of
processing. Grading is a way of giving finished product value e.g. Coffee No.1 is more
expensive than coffee No.2 etc. Grading enables the buyer to purchase the desired quality of
produce, to purchase what they want and are willing to pay for. It is determined by the whole
process incurred during manufacturing. Packaging is a way of covering the finished product so
that it becomes presentable to the consumers. If attractively packaged,
 It may promote sales because it may act as advertising medium.
 It enables farm produce to be handled more conveniently, also makes marketing more
efficient.
 Packaging protects the produce against damage, theft and adulteration on its way to the
market.
 It facilitates measurement of the commodities into quantities that can be easily handled.
Facilitates easy labeling.
 It increases the cost of production hence market value of product
Labeling refers to putting details about the use of a particular product on a paper and fixing it on
the container containing the finished product. It increases the cost of production thus affecting
the price.
Advertising – a way of market promotions. It involves creating awareness about the existence of
a particular product in the market. It is also a way of encouraging / persuading the consumers to
buy the product. May be done through the radio, TV, video, newspaper etc. the method of
advertisement used depend on the type of people its made of and their geographical location /
area. It adds value to cost of production hence marketing also influenced.
Storage – this is keeping the finished product before it reaches the final consumer. It helps to
spread availability of seasonal agricultural products (generally perishable) over extended periods
of relatively stable demand. Finished goods may be kept in a warehouse or any form of store.
The store may be personal or rental. The rental charges incurred adds production cost thus
increasing the cost of the product.
Examples
 Hides & skins – processed to make shoes, belts
 Cotton – for garments

52
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
  Wheat grain- processed to wheat flour and used to bake breads, cakes,
doughnuts, scones.
The grain may be converted into natural organic foods and sold at health food stores.
Wheat straw is also harvested, processed and turned into building materials.

Importance of value addition

1. Durability – Value addition increases durability of agricultural produce. Some agricultural raw
products are highly perishable, for example, fruits & vegetables. Fruits can be made into fruit
juice; tomatoes into tomato sauce/ paste which take a long period without going bad reducing
losses that a business would incur if they were kept in a
perishable state. The products last longer and can be in the market for longer period. This solves
the problem of perishability.
2. Higher income /increased income. Value added products attract better prices compared to raw
products. The value or quality of agricultural goods is improved implying higher prices of the
goods. This increases income level for the business. High quality products production creates a
wider market – both local & international, which means more sales.
3. Due to change of form of commodities, there is increased demand, customers are attracted by
taste from addition of flavor, packaging also attracts some customers, creating new markets and
increased sales.
4. Reduction in bulkiness. Value addition ensures products are packed / bundled into portable
forms making transportation to market easy. For example, maize on maize cobs are bulky and
occupy a lot of space than shelled maize
5. Pricing of finished products becomes easy unlike raw materials with high price fluctuations.
6. Value addition promotes diversification, e.g. dairy milk can be processed into yoghurt, cheese,
butter, low fat milk etc are used in different ways and satisfy different needs.
7. Development of agro-industries and promotion of the use of modern technology in small scale
manufacturing to enhance higher productivity. The use of processing machines are increased.
8. Creation of more jobs. Employment opportunities are increased due to increased technology /
modernization, more production. This leads to reduction of rural-urban migration
9. The country earns foreign exchange through its exports. It encourages exports hence earning
foreign exchange to a country which can be used to improve the agriculture sector.

53
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
9.0 AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS AND RESEARCH

AGRICULTURAL STATUTORY BOARDS

These are bodies established by Act of Parliament under the Agricultural Act. The act gives each
body power and guidelines on how to perform certain functions. The boards include boards,
commissions, authorities, and co-operations.
a) National Irrigation Board (NIB).
The NIB was mandated to perform the following functions:-
To develop and improve irrigation projects for the country. Irrigation projects in Kenya
include
o Mwea-Tebere irrigation scheme - for rice ( Mwea irrigation scheme)
o Ahero and West Kano irrigation scheme in Nyando – for rice, cotton, sugarcane
o Kano plains irrigation scheme – for rice and sugarcane.
o Perkerra irrigation scheme (Baringo) = onions, citrus, watermelon chilies
o Bunyala scheme- in Busia county, for rice
o Bura irrigation scheme – at the Coast
o Hola Irrigation Scheme
o Lower Nzoia Irrigation Scheme
o Lower Kuja Irrigation Scheme
o Lower Sio Irrigation Scheme
o Kibwezi Clusters Irrigation Scheme
o Lake Shore Clusters Irrigation Scheme
o Mitunguu Irrigation Scheme
o Rapu Meru Irrigation Scheme
o Proposed Daua Irrigation Scheme

b) National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB.)

The role of NCPB include the following:-
 Regulate and control production, storage of maize, wheat, pulses, & other cereals
 Ensure safe storage of strategic reserves of maize as the staple food crop for the country.
 Buying and storing maize, wheat, pulses, and other cereals - to be sold to millers and
consumers
 Advising the Minister on the production, importation or exportation of maize, wheat and
other crops in relation to the needs of Kenyans.

c) The Kenya Sisal Board (KSB)

The functions of the KSB include:-
 To promote production of sisal
 Regulate the production, grading and marketing of sisal
 Register all sisal producers

54
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
  License sisal factories and sisal exports
 Inspects sisal for export to ensure quality is maintained

d) Coffee Board of Kenya (CBK).

The CBK was charged with the following major tasks:-
 Licence coffee producers and processors
 Research on coffee production and processing
 It’s the official government agent with respect to international coffee agreement such as
prices and quotas
 Marketing parchment coffee

e) Kenya Tea Development Authority (KTDA)

The roles include:-
 Act as cooperative to farmers
 Financed many tea manufacturing industries in Kenya
 Creates employment opportunities
 Improved transport through construction of feeder roads
 Markets tea on behalf of farmers and pays them as tea is delivered
 Offers loans to farmers
 Government earns revenue from the exported tea as part of foreign exchange
 Enhanced international relations as Kenya is the largest producer of tea in Africa and 3 rd
largest exporter in the world.

f) Pyrethrum Board of Kenya

This was established to perform the following roles
 Offer advisory services to the farmers
 Manage pyrethrum nurseries
 Process pyrethrum in factory
 Marketing the processed products
 Buy pyrethrum from farmers
 Research to obtain best cultivators through selection and breeding

g) Cotton Board of Kenya

The CBK performs the following:-
 Plan, monitor and regulate cotton growing and ginning
 License and control of cotton ginneries
 Regulate, control quality of raw cotton
 Regulate export, import of cotton lint & seeds
 Regulate, control quality and supply of the seed through ginneries
 Carry out and promote research and development in cotton production and processing
 Co-ordinate training in cotton industry.
55
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
h) Kenya Sugar Board (KSB)
This was established with the following responsibilities
 Advice on development of sugarcane production for the manufacture of white sugar
 Advice on rules and regulations necessary for development of the sugar industry
 Formulate and advice on the price of cane to the out growers
 Develop and implement a cane testing service and sugarcane quality control upon
approval by the Minister
 Advice on all aspects of sugar processing
 Register all cane produces within sugar factory zone
 Ensure availability of statistics relating to sugarcane industry
 Advice on utilization of sugar by-products

i) Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA)

The HCDA is charged with the responsibilities of:-
 Offer advisory services to farmers through its extension agents
 Collecting produce from farmers
 Sort and grade the produce
 Markets produce (local & abroad).

j) Agricultural Finance Co-operation (AFC)

The roles of the AFC include:-
 Agricultural credit to farmers (at reasonable interest)
 Technical services to farmers
 Ensure repayment of the loan

k) Agricultural Development Co-operation (ADC)

The ADC had the following functions:-
 Run and operate state farms
 Raise, sell high quality breeding stock to farmers
 Bulk planting materials e.g. maize, Irish potatoes and Napier grass
 Field demonstration- to promote agricultural production

l) Kenya Meat Commission

The KMC was started to perform the following:-
 Buy beef cattle from farmers
 Market beef locally and abroad
 Slaughter
 Grade carcass

56
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
FARMERS CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES
A co-operative is an organization of people joined together voluntarily for mutual economic
benefit. . It requires a minimum of 10 adults and registered. The cooperative must be registered
with commissioner for co-operatives. Cooperatives may be producer, consumer, marketing,
savings & credit cooperative societies

Principles of co-operatives
Open membership – Pay membership fees and membership is voluntary
Equal rights - democratic governance based on one man, one vote.
Principle of share limit , i.e. maximum shares set to avoid domination
Interest on shares - Dividends are paid on the basis of share contributions
Withdrawal from membership – Voluntary & members get back their share
contribution
Loyalty e.g. members of a producer co-operative must sell their produce through their
co-operative only
Education – conduct regular training in relevant skills and co-operatives affairs.
Non-profit (motive) organization - since main objectives is to improve living standards
of their members

Types of Farmer’s Co-operatives

May be categorized as
1. Farmer (producer) cooperatives.
Individual farmers have limited capital to invest in farming. They combine resources to purchase
big land, large estates, and ranches. Once acquired it is not sub-divided but operate as a group
and they share the physical and financial products at the end of the year. Each member is paid
dividend according to shares contribution
2. Marketing co-operatives.
Help smallholder farmers to market their produce. Marketing products individually is
uneconomical due to expensive costs involved. The farmers’ produce such as milk, coffee are
collected at buying centers and transported the market. This reduces operational costs.
3. Consumer co-operatives.
They sell farm inputs to farmers. They buy inputs in bulk and are able to sell to the farmers or
members cheaply below the market prices.

Functions of Farmers Co-operative Societies

The farmers’ cooperative societies perform the following functions:-
i. Marketing farmers produce.
ii. Collecting, transporting, grading, processing, packaging, storing
iii. Selling the produce and paying the farmers
iv. Negotiating for fair prices of produce and also inputs

57
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 v. Keeping records of their activities
vi. Paying dividend to the members
vii. Giving loans (in kind) to the members
viii. Educating members – on relevant issues i.e. hold seminars, workshops, field days,
demonstrations

Problems Facing Farmers Cooperative Societies

The common problems facing these cooperatives are:-
i. Poor management and internal wrangles
ii. Financial mismanagement and corruption
iii. High costs of inputs
iv. Lack of credit facilities
v. Government policy and lack of incentives
vi. Poor infrastructure
vii. Fluctuation of market prices of agriculture commodities
viii. Lack of adequate funds to run societies
ix. Political interferences – politicians have interests

ASSOCIATIONS AND UNIONS

The Agricultural Society of Kenya (A.S.K.)
The ASK was founded in 1901 as a privately run organization. Its main functions are:
 Hold competitive agricultural shows and exhibitions of livestock, crops and farm produce
 Encourage breeding, importation of pure breeds of livestock and stock (indigenous)
improvements
 Encourage / assist in official milk recording scheme
 Organize the running of Young Farmers Clubs (YFCs)
 Organize national ploughing contest
 Publish the Kenya stud book
 Publish monthly Kenya farmer’s journal
 Award bursaries for studies/ tours to members

Youth Organizations.
There are two prominent youth organizations dealing with agriculture. These are the 4-K clubs,
and the young farmers clubs.
A. 4-K club.
It stands for Kuungana, Kufanya, Kusaidia Kenya and derives its membership from primary
schools. Its motto is ‘learn to do by doing’. The 4-K clubs are run by the ministry of agriculture
but teachers help / assist the members. Its functions are:-
Teaching the community by carrying out projects to show that agriculture is a
profitable profession
58
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 Expose the youth to existing and improved agricultural technologies
Develop and enhance leadership qualities among the youth
Use the youth as agents of change by taking part/ participating in competitive shows
Involvement in field trips to places of agricultural interest.

B. Young Farmers Clubs (YFCs)

It draws its membership from secondary schools and tertiary institutions in Kenya, and few out
of school youth clubs. They are run and managed by ASK, with all its branches linked to existing
ASK branches. The activities of the YFCs are coordinated by the National Exec. Secretary hired
by ASK, with offices at Jamhuri Park, Nairobi. At school level, the clubs are patronized by the
agriculture teacher.
The Functions include
Participate in exhibitions and competitions at ASK shows
Carry out agricultural projects
Participate in YFC annual rallies
Attend and participate in workshops and seminars related to agriculture
Participate in national tree planting activities
Participate in national ploughing contest
Participate in exchange programs-local & abroad.

Kenya National Federation of Producers (KNFP)

Formerly known as the Kenya National Farmers Union (KNFU). Recently it incorporated the
National Agricultural Commodity Association.

The functions
Fights for farmers rights
Draws attention of government to farmer’s problems in relation to production &
marketing of farm produce
Bargains for better prices of farm produce
Ensures adequate and timely supply of farm inputs
Bargain for reasonable and affordable prices of farm inputs
Provision of better infrastructure – roads, electricity etc. to facilitate quick delivery
of farm produce to the market
Provide loan facilities
Looks for markets for farmers produce both locally and overseas
Offers technical services to farmers e.g. type of seeds, management skills,
breeding /AI, when to plant, disease control etc
Adequate control of crop and livestock diseases and pests.
Represent farmers in the international federation of agricultural producers
Publishes a monthly magazine – the Farmers Voice

59
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Agricultural based women groups
These are many and majority are based in rural areas. They are engaged in small scale
agricultural activities. They create a forum whereby members are educated on basic farming
skills.

Kenya Federation of Agricultural Producers, KEFAP.

Works to empower farmers to generate remunerative cash income from markets, i.e. empowering
smallholder farmers in markets. Generate demand-driven action research support to the policy
activities undertaken by farmers’ organizations.
Promote collaborative research, support research by national farmers’ organizations supporting
farmers’ organizations with information to strengthen their research capabilities and access to
knowledge.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
Agricultural research has played a major role in Kenya’s agricultural development. Research and
technology are key to the development of any economic entity. No sector can develop and
become sustainable without a continuous infusion of new information and methods of
production. In Kenya, agricultural research has concentrated in all the major food crops and cash
crops including maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, beans, cassava, tea, coffee, sugarcane, pyrethrum
etc and on livestock production. Yield enhancing technologies such as integrated soil fertility
management options have been developed for smallholder farmers. The farmers have been
involved in many researches to increase social and cultural acceptability and to enhance
adoption.

Definition
Research is an investigation. It is an advanced stage of study undertaken to discover or establish
facts or principles. In agriculture, it involves finding solutions to farmers’ problems through
systematic experimental procedures. There are two types of research namely:
a. Basic Research and
b. Applied Research.

Basic Research - This is carried out by the intellectuals in the University and at times in
research institutions for the sake of acquiring knowledge and not for solving immediate problems
of farmers. The findings are however, sometimes utilized latter in applied research.

Applied Research - This is often carried out by the intellectuals mainly in the research institutes
and at times in the universities purposely for solving the immediate problems in the country.
Problems of the farmers are taken to the research workers by the extension officers for the
analysis and solution.

60
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
Research Contributions
The contributions of research in the areas of Agricultural development are:
 Crops and animals improvement through genetic manipulations (breeding).
 Diseases and pests control.
 Improvement and better management of the soil and its resources.
 Better and precise methods of studying climate which is one of the environmental
factors affecting agricultural productivity.
 Mechanization of farm operations purposely to maximize yield by more efficient
operations.
 Construction of good roads for easy evacuation of farm produce.
 Increase productivity of crops and animals through better techniques.

Research Institutions
(a) National
• Kenya Agricultural Research institute – KARI.
• The Tea Research Foundation of Kenya (TRFK)- at Kericho. Carry out research in tea.
The research focuses on development of improved clones, appropriate technologies for
improvement of yield (quantity of green tea leaf/made tea per hectare) and quality of tea
products
• Coffee Research Foundation, CRF – Based at Ruiru.
• Kenya trypanosomiasis research institute KETRI - now part of KARI
• Kenya Sugar Research Foundation - KESREF - It conducts research in sugarcane, develops and
test appropriate and suitable technologies, products and services for the sustainable and enhanced
production of sugar cane and related crops, the milling of such crops, and value-addition,
utilization and marketing of sugar and its co-products. Another function is to disseminate
improved production technologies in collaboration with stakeholder.
• Kenya Forestry Research Institute, KEFRI. Conducts research in forestry, and agroforestry
systems.

(b) International
International Centre for Research in Agro-Forestry – ICRAF
Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility, TSBF
International Centre for Research in semi-arid tropics – ICRISAT
International Livestock Research Institute - ILRI
International Centre for Research in Insect Pests and Ecology, ICIPE.

Role of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI)

Is a national research institution which promotes sound agricultural research, technology
generation and dissemination to ensure food security through improved productivity and
environmental conservation. It does research on

61
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
 1. Food crops – research on cereals, root and tuber crops (sweet potatoes and cassava),
legumes and pulses
2. Horticultural crops and industrial crops research on flowers, vegetables, fruits, fibre crops,
herbs and spices.
3. Livestock and range management including Animal production and range research on
dairy, beef, small ruminants, poultry, pigs, pastures and fodder crops, and range. Also include
Animal health research on livestock diseases
4. Land and water management - includes soil fertility, survey and conservation; vegetation
survey; agroforestry, irrigation and drainage
5. Biotechnology research for crops and livestock improvement including development of
livestock vaccines and diagnostic kits
6. Socio-economics - Socioeconomics and biometrics for crop, livestock and natural
resources including impact assessment, priority setting, market and policy research.
7. The Kenya Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Programme (KASAL) focusing on developing site
specific agricultural technologies for farmers and livestock keepers in the Arid and Semi-
Arid Lands.

There are 23 Centres spread all over the country

Previously designated as national or regional depending on commodity / disciplinary research
focus. They are now currently designated as Research & Development programme (RDP)
centres and Adaptive Research Programme (ARP) centres, depending on whether they have
basic/strategic or adaptive research mandate.

• KARI Headquarters • Mwea Tabere • Kiboko RC

• Muguga south centre • Kari Njoro • Kari Lanet
• Muguga north RC • Katumani RC • Kari Kakamega
• Kari Kitale • Tigoni research centre • Kari TRC- Muguga
• Kari Kabete • Embu RC • Kari Kisii
• Kari Kibos • Kari Marsabit • Kari biotechnology
• Kari Molo • Kari Mtwapa - centre
• Kari Thika • Kari Perkerra

Mandates of Some of the KARI centres are as follows:

KARI Katumani – Situated in Machakos, agro ecological zone (AEZ) IV, (semi-arid tropical
climate). It has a mandate for Adaptive and Research and Development Programme for all the
counties. The research mandate may be summarized as follows:
a) Development of technologies for soil and water management for the dry farming areas
b) Improvement of crop varieties (maize, sorghums, millets, beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas, green
grams, cassava and sweet potatoes) which tolerate various stresses including high temperatures,
soil moisture stress, low soil fertility, and pests and diseases which are prevalent in the area.
62
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
KARI Molo Mandate – pyrethrum research (national mandate and adaptive). Also does
research on propagation of temperate fruits (Apples, Plums, Pears and Peaches).
KARI Kiboko Research Centre, Makindu – the centre mandate is to undertake range research
on constraints that affect rangeland productivity.

KARI Mtwapa, Kilifi - The main mandate for KARI Mtwapa is adaptive research but also
conducts strategic research for improvement of maize, cassava, tree crops like coconut and
cashew and aspects of natural resources management specific to the mandate region
KARI Embu Research Centre – carry out both applied and adaptive research in support of
cotton. Also conducts strategic research related to improvement of maize for medium altitude
areas and its agronomy.
KARI Muguga South Research Centre - developing technologies for natural resources
management for humid and sub-humid areas, and biological control of specific plant pest and
specific plant pests / disease management issues.
KARI Njoro Research Centre - carry out adaptive research and strategic research in wheat,
malt, barley and oil crops production.
KARI Kitale Research Centre - strategic research in high altitude maize and pastures
improvement.
KARI Naivasha Research Centre - addresses all aspects related to nutrition/feeding, breeding
and general management of dairy, dual-purpose Sahiwal cattle, the dual purpose goat and
poultry. The centre is a referral facility for development of technologies to support sustainable
livestock production.
KARI Muguga North Research Centre – animal health mgt - is a referral centre for control
and management of livestock diseases of national importance, namely, tick-borne diseases (East
Coast Fever, Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis, Heart water, etc.), Rinderpest. Also validates novel
livestock vaccines.
KARI Thika Research Centre – for horticultural crops - fruits, vegetables, flowers and
macadamia nuts. As a referral centre, technological packages developed at Thika will have to
undergo adaptive research to render them more suitable for a particular production area.
KARI Trypanosomiasis Research Centre - based at Muguga has the responsibility for research
in tsetsefly-transmitted diseases in both livestock and human beings. These diseases are mainly
the trypanosomiasis in livestock and sleeping sickness in human beings. The centre has facilities
at Alupe, Lambwe Valley and Nguruman.
KARI Tigoni Research Centre - strategic mandate for potato research in the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Marcel Mazoyer, Laurence Roudart, A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age
to the Current Crisis, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1583671218
2. `GoK. 2007; 2008. Economic Survey. Government printers Nairobi.
63
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture
3. Jaetzold R & H. Schmidt. 1983. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya vol II.
4. Gachene, C.K.K. and Kimaru, G. (2003). Soil Fertility and Land Productivity - A guide for
extension workers in the eastern Africa region. Technical Handbook No.30. Regional Land
Management Unit (RELMA)/ Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).
ISBN: 9966-896-66-X.
5. FAO (1996). Agro-ecological Zoning Guidelines. FAO Soils Bulletin 73. Rom. [Link].
6. Sombroek, W.G., Braun, H.M.H. and van der Pouw, B.J.A. (1982). Exploratory Soil Map and
Agro-Climatic Zone Map of Kenya, 1980.
7. Mannion A.M. 1995. Agriculture and Environmental Change. Temporal and Spatial
Dimensions. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester, England.
8. Tivy, J. 1990. Agricultural Ecology. Longman, UK.
9. Beets W.C. 1990. Raising and Sustaining Productivity of Smallholder Farming Systems in the
Tropics. Agbe Publishers, Holland.
10. African Union (AU), 2003. Maputo Declaration on Food Security. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
11. African Union, NEPAD, 2004. Implementing the Comprehensive African Agriculture
Development Programme and Restoring Food Security in Africa: the Roadmap. Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
12. ________, 2006. Declaration of the Abuja Food Security Summit. 4-7 December, 2006.
Abuja, Nigeria.
13. APN, 2008. Africa’s Development: Promises and Prospects. Geneva, Switzerland.
[Link] M.N. and Gert-Jan Stads, 2004. “Sub-Saharan African Agricultural Research:
Recent Investment Trends”. Outlook on Agriculture, Vol. 33, No 4: 239-246.
15. Diouf, J., 1989. The Challenge of Agricultural Development in Africa. Sir John Crawford
Memorial Lecture. World Bank, Washington D.C.
16. FAO, 2008. State of Food and Agriculture: World Food and Agriculture in Review. Rome,
Italy.
17. MOTI/JICA, 2007. Kenya Industrial Development: Master Plan Study for Kenyan Industrial
Development. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Nairobi, Kenya.
18. UNECA, 2008. Trends in land and labour productivity by regional economic community,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
19. Website = [Link].

64
KCU 100 - History and Development of EA Agriculture