SESSION 2: True False Not Given / Yes No Not Given
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Class Practice
Pyramid Building
The most famous pyramid is the Great Pyramid of Giza which is actually only one of over a hundred
surviving pyramids. There is a long-standing question about how the pyramids were built given the
lack of technology over 4,000 years ago but scientists are piecing together the puzzle. The
blocks which make up the pyramids were hewn from quarries and then transported to the
pyramids for construction. This was an incredible feat considering the distance that the raw
materials had to travel and their enormous weight. The transportation of the materials was either
by river using a boat or by land using a wooden sledge. Given the softness of the ground, the wheel
would have been of little use had it been invented at that time. It is believed that the sand in front
of the sledge was wet with water in order to facilitate the movement of the sledge and reduce
friction. These sledges were pulled manually or sometimes by using beasts of burden depending on
the ease at which the sledges could move over the ground. Interestingly, two thousand years after
the pyramid building era of the Ancient Egyptians, the Romans moved stones using similar
techniques at Baalbek. Once the blocks arrived at the pyramid construction site, it is thought they
were moved into place using a ramp and pulley system.
The Old Kingdom period in Ancient Egyptian history is also known as the pyramid building era. The
Ancient Egyptians achieved the most remarkable feats of building work which have still not been
surpassed, particularly given the primitive technology used to build them. There is nothing
remotely mystical or magical about how the pyramids were built as is commonly thought. Further
still, while popular belief is that the Great Pyramid was built using slave labour, this theory has since
been debunked. The first building made in a pyramid shape is thought to be the Stepped Pyramid
which consists of six steps placed on top of each other in a pyramid shape to create the world's first
superstructure. The credit to finally achieving a smooth sided pyramid goes to lmhotep, an architect
commissioned by King Sneferu. The pyramids were not an instant achievement, but the
achievement of trial and error.
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Questions 1-8
Decide if the statements below are True, False or Not Given according to the information in the
passage.
1. The controversy over the method used in the construction of the pyramids has been solved
by scientists.
2. It is possible that Ancient Egyptians could have lubricated paths to aid transportation by
sledge.
3. Sleds were dragged by animals not humans. U
4. The Romans learned the techniques of moving huge stones from the Ancient Egyptians.
5. The building work of the Ancient Egyptians is unrivalled.
6. Some people believe that magic may have been used by the Ancient Egyptians to build the
pyramids.
7. The Great Pyramid was built using slave labour.
8. It took more than one attempt to get the construction of the pyramids right.
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Home Practice 1 (T0502R2)
What’s so funny?
John McCrone reviews recent research in humour
The joke comes over the headphones: ‘’Which side of a dog has the most hair? The left.’ No, not
funny. Try again. ‘’Which side of a dog has the most hair? The outside.’ Hah! The punchline is silly
yet fitting, tempting a smile, even a laugh. Laughter has always struck people as deeply mysterious,
perhaps pointless. The writer Arthur Koestler dubbed it the luxury reflex: ‘unique in that it serves
no apparent biological purpose’.
Theories about humour have an ancient pedigree. Plato expressed the idea that humour is simply a
delighted feeling of superiority over others. Kant and Freud felt that joke-telling relies on building
up a psychic tension which is safely punctured by the ludicrousness of the punchline. But most
modern humour theorists have settled on some version of Aristotle’s belief that jokes are based on
a reaction to or resolution of incongruity, when the punchline is either a nonsense or, though
appearing silly, has a clever second meaning.
Graeme Ritchie, a computational linguist in Edinburgh, studies the linguistic structure of jokes in
order to understand not only humour but language understanding and reasoning in machines. He
says that while there is no single format for jokes, many revolve around a sudden and surprising
conceptual shift. A comedian will present a situation followed by an unexpected interpretation that
is also apt.
So even if a punchline sounds silly, the listener can see there is a clever semantic fit and that
sudden mental ‘Aha!’ is the buzz that makes us laugh. Viewed from this angle, humour is just a
form of creative insight, a sudden leap to a new perspective.
However, there is another type of laughter, the laughter of social appeasement and it is important
to understand this too. Play is a crucial part of development in most young mammals. Rats produce
ultrasonic squeaks to prevent their scuffles turning nasty. Chimpanzees have a ‘play-face’ – a gaping
expression accompanied by a panting ‘ah, ah’ noise. In humans, these signals have mutated into
smiles and laughs. Researchers believe social situations, rather than cognitive events such as jokes,
trigger these instinctual markers of play or appeasement. People laugh on fairground rides or when
tickled to flag a play situation, whether they feel amused or not.
Both social and cognitive types of laughter tap into the same expressive machinery in our brains,
the emotion and motor circuits that produce smiles and excited vocalisations. However, if cognitive
laughter is the product of more general thought processes, it should result from more expansive
brain activity.
Psychologist Vinod Goel investigated humour using the new technique of ‘single event’ functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRl). An MRI scanner uses magnetic fields and radio waves to track
the changes in oxygenated blood that accompany mental activity. Until recently, MRI scanners
needed several minutes of activity and so could not be used to track rapid thought processes such
as comprehending a joke. New developments now allow half-second ‘snapshots’ of all sorts of
reasoning and problem-solving activities.
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Although Goel felt being inside a brain scanner was hardly the ideal place for appreciating a joke, he
found evidence that understanding a joke involves a widespread mental shift. His scans showed
that at the beginning of a joke the listener’$ prefrontal cortex lit up, particularly the right prefrontal
believed to be critical for problem solving. But there was also activity in the temporal lobes at the
side of the head (consistent with attempts to rouse stored knowledge) and in many other brain
areas. Then when the punchline arrived, a new area sprang to life -the orbital prefrontal cortex.
This patch of brain tucked behind the orbits of the eyes is associated with evaluating information.
Making a rapid emotional assessment of the events of the moment is an extremely demanding job
for the brain, animal or human. Energy and arousal levels may need, to be retuned in the blink of an
eye. These abrupt changes will produce either positive or negative feelings. The orbital cortex, the
region that becomes active in Goel’s experiment, seems the best candidate for the site that feeds
such feelings into higher-level thought processes, with its close connections to the brain’s sub-
cortical arousal apparatus and centres of metabolic control.
All warm-blooded animals make constant tiny adjustments in arousal in response to external events,
but humans, who have developed a much more complicated internal life as a result of language,
respond emotionally not only to their surroundings, but to their own thoughts. Whenever a sought-
for answer snaps into place, there is a shudder of pleased recognition. Creative discovery being
pleasurable, humans have learned to find ways of milking this natural response. The fact that jokes
tap into our general evaluative machinery explains why the line between funny and disgusting, or
funny and frightening, can be so fine. Whether a joke gives pleasure or pain depends on a person’s
outlook.
Humour may be a luxury, but the mechanism behind it is no evolutionary accident. As Peter Derks,
a psychologist at William and Mary College in Virginia, says: ‘I like to think of humour as the
distorted mirror of the mind. It’s creative, perceptual, analytical and lingual. If we can figure out
how the mind processes humour, then we’ll have a pretty good handle on how it works in general.
Questions 14-19
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
14 Arthur Koestler considered laughter biologically important in several ways.
15 Plato believed humour to be a sign of above-average intelligence.
16 Kant believed that a successful joke involves the controlled release of nervous energy.
17 Current thinking on humour has largely ignored Aristotle’s view on the subject.
18 Graeme Ritchie’s work links jokes to artificial intelligence.
19 Most comedians use personal situations as a source of humour.
20 Chimpanzees make particular noises when they are playing.
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Home Practice 2 (T704R2)
Endless Harvest
More than two hundred years ago, Russian explorers and fur hunters landed on the Aleutian Islands,
a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific, and learned of a land mass that lay farther to the north.
The islands' native inhabitants called this land mass Aleyska, the 'Great Land'; today, we know it as
Alaska.
The forty-ninth state to join the United States of America (in 1959), Alaska is fully one-fifth the size
of the mainland 48 - states combined. It shares, with Canada, the second, longest river system in
North America and has over half the coastline of the United States. The rivers feed into the Bering
Sea and Gulf of Alaska - cold, nutrient-rich waters which support tens of millions of seabirds, and
over 400 species of fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Taking advantage of this rich bounty,
Alaska's commercial fisheries have developed into some of the largest in the world.
According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), Alaska's commercial fisheries
landed hundreds of thousands of tonnes of shellfish and herring, and well over a million tonnes of
ground fish (cod, sole, perch and pollock) in 2000. The true cultural heart and soul of Alaska's
fisheries, "however, is salmon. 'Salmon,' notes writer Susan Ewing in The Great Alaska Nature
Facebook, pump through Alaska like blood through a heart, bringing rhythmic, circulating
nourishment to land, animals and people.' The 'predictable abundance of salmon allowed some
native cultures to flourish,' and 'dying spankers" feed bears, eagles, other animals, and ultimately
the soil itself' All five species of Pacific salmon - chinook, or king; chum, or dog; Coho, or silver;
sockeye, or red; and pink, or humpback - spawn in Alaskan waters, and 90% of all Pacific salmon
commercially caught in North America arc produced there. Indeed, if Alaska was an independent
nation, it would be the largest producer of wild salmon in the world. During 2000, commercial
catches of Pacific salmon in Alaska exceeded 320,000 tonnes, with an ex-vessel value of over
$US260 million.
Catches have not always been so healthy. Between 1940 and 1959, over-fishing led to crashes in
salmon populations so severe that in 1953 Alaska was declared a federal disaster area. With the
onset of statehood, however, the State of Alaska took over management of its own fisheries,
guided by a state constitution which mandates that Alaska's natural resources be managed on a
sustainable basis. At that time, statewide harvests totaled around 25 million salmon. Over the next
few- decades average catches steadily increased as a result of this policy of sustainable
management, until, during the 1990s, annual harvests were well in excess of 100 million, and on
several occasions over 200 million fish.
The primary reason for such increases is what is known as In-Season Abundance-Based
Management'. There are biologists throughout the state constantly monitoring adult fish as they
show up to spawn. The biologists sit in streamside counting towers, study sonar, watch from
aeroplanes, and talk to fishermen. The salmon season in Alaska is not pre-set. The fishermen know
die approximate time of year when they will be allowed to fish, but on any given day, one or more
field biologists in a particular area can put a halt to fishing. Even sport filing can be brought to a halt
It is this management mechanism that has allowed Alaska salmon stocks - and, accordingly, Alaska
salmon fisheries - to prosper, even as salmon populations in the rest of the United States arc
increasingly considered threatened or even endangered.
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In 1999, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)*** commissioned a review of the Alaska salmon
fishery. The Council, which was founded in 19%, certifies fisheries that meet high environmental
standards, enabling them to use a label that recognises their environmental responsibility. The MSC
has established a set of criteria by which commercial fisheries can be judged. Recognising the
potential benefits of being identified as environmentally responsible, fisheries approach the Council
requesting to undergo the certification process. The MSC then appoints a certification committee,
composed of a panel of fisheries experts, which gathers information and opinions from fishermen,
biologists, government officials, industry representatives, non-governmental organisations and
others.
Some observers thought the Alaska salmon fisheries would not have any chance of certification
when, in the months leading up to MSC's final decision, salmon runs throughout western Alaska -
completely collapsed. In the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, chinook and chum runs were probably
the poorest since statehood; subsistence communities throughout the region, who normally have
priority over commercial fishing, were devastated.
The crisis was completely unexpected, but researchers believe it had nothing to do with impacts of
fisheries. Rather, they contend, it was almost certainly the result of climatic shifts, prompted in part
by cumulative effects of the el nino/la nina phenomenon on Pacific Ocean temperatures,
culminating in a harsh winter in which huge numbers of salmon eggs were frozen. It could have
meant the end as far as the certification process was concerned. However, the state reacted quickly,
closing down all fisheries, even those necessary for subsistence purposes.
In September 2000, MSC announced that the Alaska salmon fisheries qualified for certification.
Seven companies producing Alaska salmon were immediately granted permission to display the
MSC logo on their products. Certification is for an initial period of five years, with an annual review
to ensure dial the fishery is continuing to meet the required standards.
Questions 14-20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
14. The inhabitants of the Aleutian islands renamed their islands 4Aleyska\
15. Alaska's fisheries are owned by some of the world's largest companies.
16. Life in Alaska is dependent on salmon.
17. Ninety per cent of all Pacific salmon caught are sockeye or pink salmon.
18. More than 320,000 tonnes of salmon were caught in Alaska in 2000.
19. Between 1940 and 1959, there was a sharp decrease in Alaska's salmon population.
20. During the 1990s, the average number of salmon caught each year was 100 million.
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ORIENTATION: READING
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