- Geoffrey Chaucer is the Father of English Literature, English Poetry, and the English

Language.

- William Shakespeare is the Father of English Drama.

- Christopher Marlowe is the Father of English Tragedy.

- Eugene O’Neill is the Father of Modern Drama.

- Henrik Ibsen is the Father of Modern Theatre.

- Francis Bacon is the Father of English Essay and Modern English Prose.

- King Alfred the Great is the Father of English Prose.

- Henry Fielding is the Father of English Novel.

- Alexander Pope is the Father of English Satire.

- Jonathan Swift is the Father of Satirical Prose.

- John Milton is the Father of English Epic Poetry.

- Homer is the Father of Epic Poetry.

- Sir Thomas Wyatt is the Father of English Sonnet.

- Francesco Petrarch is the Father of Italian Sonnet and Father of Humanism.

- Horace Walpole is the Father of Gothic Novel.

- Edgar Allan Poe is the Father of Short Story/Mystery Story.

- Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is the Father of Modern Detective Story.

- H. G. Wells is the Father of Science Fiction.

- George Orwell is the Father of Dystopian Literature.

- J. R. R. Tolkien is the Father of Modern Fantasy Literature.

- Ralph Waldo Emerson is the Father of American Transcendentalism.

- Bloomfield is the Father of Modern Linguistics.

- I. A. Richards is the Father of Practical Criticism.

- William Wordsworth is the Father of English Romantic Poetry.

- John Keats is the Father of English Ode.

- Nissim Ezekiel is the Father of Indian English Poetry.

- Henry Louis Vivian Derozio is the Father of Indian-Anglican Sonnet.

- Rabindranath Tagore is the Indian National Poet.

UGC NET PRIORITY LIST – NOBEL LITERATURE LAUREATES (1901–2025)

1. T.S. Eliot (1948) – Modernist poetry and criticism; The Waste Land forms core study in NET
syllabus.

2. W.B. Yeats (1923) – Symbolism and mysticism; Irish Revival Movement key for poetry
section.

3. Rabindranath Tagore (1913) – Gitanjali and East-West cultural themes; major figure in Indian
literature module.

4. William Faulkner (1949) – American modernist prose; Stream of consciousness and Southern
Gothic technique.

5. Ernest Hemingway (1954) – Iceberg Theory, The Old Man and the Sea; a favorite in
American fiction analysis.

6. Gabriel García Márquez (1982) – Magical Realism; Latin American narrative important for
comparative literature.

7. Toni Morrison (1993) – Feminism and race; Beloved and Jazz appear in 21st-century
American literature.

8. Jean-Paul Sartre (1964, declined) – Existentialism and literary theory; often compared with
Camus.
9. Samuel Beckett (1969) – Pioneer of Absurd Drama; Waiting for Godot key play in UGC NET.

10. Wole Soyinka (1986) – African postcolonial theatre; questions on cultural hybridity and
political satire.

11. Doris Lessing (2007) – Feminist modernism in The Golden Notebook; psychological realism
emphasized.

12. Harold Pinter (2005) – Absurdism and modern drama; studied alongside Beckett in English
Theatre unit.

13. Pablo Neruda (1971) – Political and romantic poetry; examined under postcolonial literature.

14. V.S. Naipaul (2001) – Exile and identity; A House for Mr. Biswas represents postcolonial
displacement.

15. Albert Camus (1957) – Existential philosophy and absurdity explored in The Stranger and
The Plague.

16. Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) – Themes of memory, identity, and loss in Never Let Me Go and The
Remains of the Day.

17. George Bernard Shaw (1925) – Modern theatre reform; Man and Superman connects
Victorian realism to modern drama.

18. John Steinbeck (1962) – Depression-era fiction; social concerns in Of Mice and Men and
The Grapes of Wrath.

19. Alice Munro (2013) – Psychological short fiction; gender, realism, and provincial life
questions often appear.

20. Seamus Heaney (1995) – Irish voice in postcolonial poetry; notable for Beowulf translation.

21. Gao Xingjian (2000) – Chinese experimental playwright; comparative literature context.

22. Orhan Pamuk (2006) – Postmodernism and cultural duality; Snow and My Name is Red in
syllabus discussions.

23. Nadine Gordimer (1991) – Feminist and apartheid themes; realism intertwined with political
criticism.

24. J.M. Coetzee (2003) – South African realism and postcolonial ethics; Disgrace frequently
analyzed.
25. Bob Dylan (2016) – Lyrics interpreted as literature; rare interdisciplinary topic in Paper II.

26. Patrick White (1973) – Australian identity and spirituality; modernist narrative complexity.

27. Heinrich Böll (1972) – Post-War Germany and moral reconstruction; humanistic realism.

28. Hermann Hesse (1946) – Eastern philosophy in Western prose; Siddhartha remains key in
comparative literatures.

29. Thomas Mann (1929) – Symbolic realism; The Magic Mountain and Death in Venice connect
to European thought.

30. Olga Tokarczuk (2018) – Contemporary narrative innovation; philosophical fiction themes.

why John Dryden is called Alexander Pope’s predecessor — in simple and clear terms.

🧑‍🎓 Who was John Dryden?

John Dryden (1631–1700) was an English poet, dramatist, and literary critic.

He lived during the Restoration period (after 1660, when monarchy was restored under Charles
II).

He is often called “the father of English criticism” and the founder of modern English poetry.

🪶 Alexander Pope (1688–1744) came after Dryden

Pope was born when Dryden was already a famous writer.

Pope grew up reading Dryden’s works and openly admired him.

Pope continued and perfected the neoclassical style Dryden had developed.

🔗 How Dryden became Pope’s Predecessor

Aspect John Dryden Alexander Pope

Time Period Restoration Age (1660–1700) Augustan Age (1700–1745)

Role Pioneer of Neoclassicism in English poetry Perfectionist and follower of Neoclassicism
Style Introduced polished, balanced verse; developed heroic couplet Perfected heroic couplet
with precision and wit
Themes Political satire, moral commentary, religion Social satire, moral philosophy, human
nature
Famous Works Absalom and Achitophel, Mac Flecknoe, Essay of Dramatic Poesy The Rape of
the Lock, Essay on Man, The Dunciad.

🏛️ What Pope learned from Dryden

1. Use of Heroic Couplets
Dryden made this form popular; Pope made it flawless.

> Dryden built the road — Pope polished it.

2. Neoclassical Ideals
Both believed poetry should reflect reason, order, harmony, and moral truth.

3. Satirical Tone
Both used wit and satire to expose human follies and corruption.

4. Urban and Social Themes

Instead of nature or emotions, they wrote about society, politics, and manners.

🏅 In Summary
John Dryden is called Alexander Pope’s predecessor because:

He introduced the neoclassical style to English poetry.

Pope inherited and perfected it.

Together, they represent the Age of Reason and Augustan spirit in literature.

> Dryden founded the school of neoclassicism, and Pope became its brightest pupil.
*Modern and Postmodern writers and their works*

🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝
2___😊🤗😍😊🤗😍😊)*
*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning___ UGC NET/SET PAPER

🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝
Modern and Postmodern Writers and Their Works

The Modernist Period (1890s–1945)

Modernism emerged from the disillusionment and cultural crisis following the rapid
industrialization of Europe, the decline of religious faith, and the devastation of World War I. The
movement sought to redefine art and literature by emphasizing experimentation, fragmentation,
and a rejection of Victorian realism and moral certitude.

T.S. Eliot (1888–1965)

T.S. Eliot revolutionized modern poetry through his intricate allusions, fragmented structure, and
philosophical depth. His The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (1915) captures the paralysis and
spiritual emptiness of modern man, while The Waste Land (1922) stands as a landmark of
Modernism, reflecting postwar disillusionment through mythic method, collage technique, and
multiple voices. Four Quartets (1943) deepens his exploration of time, redemption, and the
spiritual quest. His essays, including Tradition and the Individual Talent (1919), redefined literary
criticism by emphasizing impersonality and the continuity of tradition.

James Joyce (1882–1941)

Joyce’s fiction reflects the journey from realism to radical experimentation. Dubliners (1914)
presents a series of epiphanies revealing spiritual paralysis in modern life. A Portrait of the Artist
as a Young Man (1916) portrays the intellectual awakening of Stephen Dedalus. Ulysses (1922)
parallels Homer’s Odyssey in its depiction of a single day in Dublin, employing
stream-of-consciousness, stylistic shifts, and interior monologue. Finnegans Wake (1939) takes
linguistic experimentation to its peak, employing polyglot punning and dream logic to represent
cyclical history.

Virginia Woolf (1882–1941)

Woolf’s novels are central to the representation of consciousness in modern fiction. Mrs
Dalloway (1925) unfolds through shifting perspectives within a single day, examining the
fragmentation of identity and memory. To the Lighthouse (1927) juxtaposes the fluidity of
perception and the permanence of art. The Waves (1931) employs soliloquies to represent six
intertwined consciousnesses in lyrical prose. A Room of One’s Own (1929) and Three Guineas
(1938) articulate her feminist vision and critique the gendered structures of literary production.

D.H. Lawrence (1885–1930)

Lawrence explored the conflict between instinct and intellect in an industrialized society. Sons
and Lovers (1913) examines emotional dependence and the Oedipal bond. The Rainbow (1915)
and Women in Love (1920) delve into the struggle between individual freedom and social
convention. Lady Chatterley’s Lover (1928), banned for its explicit treatment of sexuality,
challenged the moral codes of its age. His work reflects a belief in the healing power of sensual
and emotional connection.

W.B. Yeats (1865–1939)

Yeats evolved from Romantic mysticism to Modernist symbolism. His early verse, rooted in Irish
mythology (The Wanderings of Oisin, 1889), gave way to more austere and symbolic works in
The Tower (1928) and The Winding Stair (1933). Poems such as “The Second Coming” and
“Sailing to Byzantium” explore historical chaos, spiritual transformation, and the artist’s
immortality. His plays, essays, and involvement in the Irish Literary Revival linked literature to
national identity.

Joseph Conrad (1857–1924)

Conrad’s impressionistic prose examines moral ambiguity and isolation. Heart of Darkness
(1899) explores imperialism and the darkness within the human soul. Lord Jim (1900) and
Nostromo (1904) probe moral responsibility and colonial exploitation. The Secret Agent (1907)
anticipates modern terrorism and urban alienation. His narrative techniques—multiple
perspectives, irony, and unreliable narration—prefigured modernist experimentation.

Ezra Pound (1885–1972)

Pound’s aesthetic of “Make it new” defined Modernist innovation. As leader of Imagism, he

sought precision and clarity in verse, exemplified in Ripostes (1912). The Cantos (1917–69),
though unfinished and elliptical, attempt to weave together history, economics, and myth into a
vast poetic vision. Pound’s editorial influence on Eliot’s The Waste Land and his mentorship of
Joyce, H.D., and Hemingway were decisive in shaping Modernism.

Gertrude Stein (1874–1946)

Stein’s experiments with repetition, rhythm, and syntax in Three Lives (1909) and Tender
Buttons (1914) sought to capture the essence of consciousness rather than narrative. Her salon
in Paris became a hub for expatriate modernists, influencing Hemingway and Picasso.
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940)

Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925) remains the quintessential portrayal of the American
Dream’s corruption. His prose style combines lyricism and disillusionment, capturing the
glamour and despair of the Jazz Age. Works like Tender Is the Night (1934) and This Side of
Paradise (1920) explore the moral decay of postwar youth and the emptiness of wealth.

Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961)

Hemingway’s minimalist style and understated emotion defined the “Iceberg Theory” of prose.
The Sun Also Rises (1926) depicts the Lost Generation’s aimlessness, while A Farewell to Arms
(1929) captures the futility of war and the fragility of love. For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
extends his vision to political conflict and sacrifice.

William Faulkner (1897–1962)

Faulkner’s stream-of-consciousness narration and non-linear structure redefined American

fiction. The Sound and the Fury (1929) and As I Lay Dying (1930) reveal fragmented
consciousness and decaying Southern values. Absalom, Absalom! (1936) examines myth,
history, and racial guilt in the American South.

Other Modernists

T.E. Hulme’s critical ideas anticipated Imagism. Wallace Stevens’s Harmonium (1923) explored
imagination’s role in shaping reality. Marianne Moore’s precise, ironic verse and H.D.’s feminist
reworking of myth expanded modernist poetics. In drama, Eugene O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape
(1922) and Long Day’s Journey into Night (1956) brought psychological realism and tragic
intensity to the stage.

The Postmodern Period (1945–present)

Postmodernism, arising in the aftermath of World War II, questioned modernist ideals of
coherence, meaning, and progress. It foregrounded irony, fragmentation, metafiction,
intertextuality, and the blurring of boundaries between history and fiction, reality and
representation.

Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)

Beckett’s minimalist drama expresses existential absurdity. Waiting for Godot (1952) presents
two tramps trapped in repetitive waiting, symbolizing the futility of human existence. Endgame
(1957) and Krapp’s Last Tape (1958) explore decay, memory, and the limitations of language.
His novels, such as Molloy (1951) and The Unnamable (1953), strip narrative to its bare
essence, reflecting the fragmentation of self.
John Fowles (1926–2005)

Fowles combined metafiction with philosophical inquiry. The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969)
juxtaposes Victorian realism with postmodern self-reflexivity through multiple endings and
authorial intrusion. The Magus (1965) interrogates illusion, freedom, and manipulation through
layered realities and psychological ambiguity.

Thomas Pynchon (b. 1937)

Pynchon’s labyrinthine narratives portray paranoia, entropy, and technological domination. V.

(1963) explores the collapse of meaning in a globalized world, The Crying of Lot 49 (1966)
dramatizes the search for hidden systems, and Gravity’s Rainbow (1973) is an encyclopedic
novel of war, power, and information. His dense intertextuality and satirical tone epitomize
postmodern form.

Don DeLillo (b. 1936)

DeLillo’s fiction examines media culture and postindustrial alienation. White Noise (1985)
critiques consumerism and the fear of death. Libra (1988) reimagines the Kennedy
assassination, blending fact and fiction. Underworld (1997) constructs a panoramic vision of
postwar America through nuclear anxiety, waste, and cultural memory.

Jeanette Winterson (b. 1959)

Winterson’s Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit (1985) combines bildungsroman and parody,
exploring gender, sexuality, and religious constraint. Written on the Body (1992) destabilizes
gender identity and the language of desire. Her works merge myth and postmodern narrative
play.

Salman Rushdie (b. 1947)

Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (1981) intertwines individual and national identity, using magical
realism to narrate postcolonial India. The Satanic Verses (1988) explores migration, faith, and
hybridity through mythic and parodic storytelling. His later novels, The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995)
and Shalimar the Clown (2005), continue to interrogate history, identity, and narrative
multiplicity.

Margaret Atwood (b. 1939)

Atwood blends feminist critique and dystopian imagination. The Handmaid’s Tale (1985)
portrays patriarchal theocracy and female resistance. Alias Grace (1996) reconstructs a
historical murder through fragmented testimonies, while Oryx and Crake (2003) and The Year of
the Flood (2009) envision genetic dystopias shaped by corporate power and ecological
collapse.
Julian Barnes (b. 1946), Ian McEwan (b. 1948), and Martin Amis (b. 1949)

Barnes’s Flaubert’s Parrot (1984) and A History of the World in 10½ Chapters (1989) question
the reliability of history and narrative truth. McEwan’s Atonement (2001) examines guilt,
authorship, and narrative reconstruction. Amis’s Money (1984) and London Fields (1989)
satirize consumerism and moral decay in contemporary Britain.

Angela Carter (1940–1992)

Carter’s The Bloody Chamber (1979) reworks fairy tales with feminist and erotic subversion.
Nights at the Circus (1984) and Wise Children (1991) celebrate theatricality and transgression,
blending magic realism and carnival imagery.

John Barth (b. 1930) and Kurt Vonnegut (1922–2007)

Barth’s Lost in the Funhouse (1968) exemplifies metafictional self-awareness, while The
Sot-Weed Factor (1960) parodies historical romance. Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five (1969)
fuses science fiction, anti-war satire, and fragmented time narrative.

Toni Morrison (1931–2019)

Morrison’s novels blend myth, memory, and history to explore African American identity. The
Bluest Eye (1970) examines racialized beauty standards, Song of Solomon (1977) reconstructs
ancestral history, and Beloved (1987) portrays slavery’s haunting legacy through ghostly
realism. Her lyrical prose and historical consciousness redefine postmodern ethics.

J.M. Coetzee (b. 1940)

Coetzee’s works interrogate authority, morality, and postcolonial guilt. Waiting for the Barbarians
(1980) and Disgrace (1999) examine power, violence, and human complicity. His austere style
and metafictional reflections in Foe (1986) question authorship and silenced voices in colonial
narratives.

Arundhati Roy (b. 1961)

Roy’s The God of Small Things (1997) interlaces political history and personal trauma through a
nonlinear narrative and poetic language. The novel’s structure and themes of caste, love, and
forbidden memory mark it as postcolonial postmodernism.

Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (b. 1938)

Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) reclaims African perspective within colonial discourse, while
Ngũgĩ’s A Grain of Wheat (1967) and Petals of Blood (1977) critique postcolonial betrayal and
cultural displacement. Both writers employ hybrid narrative modes that merge realism and oral
tradition.

Gabriel García Márquez (1927–2014)

Though Colombian, Márquez’s influence on postmodern and postcolonial writing is immense.

One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) and Love in the Time of Cholera (1985) employ magical
realism to depict historical cycles and collective memory, inspiring writers across continents.

Postmodern Poets and Dramatists

Sylvia Plath’s Ariel (1965) fuses confessional intensity with mythic imagery, while Ted Hughes’s
Crow (1970) channels archetypal violence and creation. Philip Larkin’s irony contrasts with
Seamus Heaney’s rooted poetics of land and identity. In drama, Harold Pinter’s pauses and
menace redefine communication in The Caretaker (1960) and The Homecoming (1965). Tom
Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1966) reimagines Shakespearean tragedy
through absurdist parody. Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962) explores
illusion and disintegration in American domestic life.

[Link]

💎 Important Educational Policies, Commissions & Schemes in India:

🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝
1____😊🤗😍😊🤗😍😊)*
*(Dr. Nits____Have a Happy and Smart Learning_UGC NET/SET PAPER

🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝🤝
🏛️ Colonial and Pre-Independence Developments
1. Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)
Introduced English as the medium of instruction, emphasizing Western literature and science
over indigenous learning systems. It laid the foundation for the British system of education in
India.

2. Wood’s Dispatch (1854)

Often called the “Magna Carta of English Education in India.”
Recommended:

Establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras

Development of vernacular primary education

Teacher training institutions

Department of Education in every province

3. Hunter Commission (Indian Education Commission, 1882)

Focused on primary education, decentralization of education administration, and promotion of
girls’ education.

🇮🇳 Post-Independence Educational Commissions and Reforms

4. University Education Commission (Radhakrishnan Commission, 1948–49)
Headed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
Objective: Improve higher education quality, promote research, and maintain academic
standards.
Recommended university autonomy and moral/spiritual education.

5. Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar Commission, 1952–53)

Suggested the 3-year secondary and 3-year higher secondary structure, diversified curriculum,
and vocational education.

6. Kothari Commission (1964–66)

Landmark report titled “Education and National Development.”
Major Recommendations:

10+2+3 education pattern

Common School System

Equal educational opportunity

Education for national integration

Free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14

Teacher education reforms

Formed the basis for the National Policy on Education (1968).

7. State Institute of Education (SIE), Allahabad – 1964

Established to enhance educational research and training at the state level. Later evolved into
the SCERT.

8. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) – 1961

Set up in New Delhi to:
Develop model curricula and textbooks

Conduct research in school education

Organize in-service teacher training

Guide SCERTs and state education departments

9. Basic Education Council – 1972

Promoted Gandhian Basic Education (Nai Talim) emphasizing learning through productive work
and community life.

10. State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) – 1981

Formed in every state to implement NCERT’s objectives locally and to improve school
curriculum, pedagogy, and teacher training.

📘 National Policies and Major Educational Programmes

11. National Policy on Education (NPE) – 1986 (Revised 1992)
Focused on universal access, equality, and quality education.
Key Features:

Education as a fundamental tool for national development

Operation Blackboard for infrastructure improvement

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

National Literacy Mission

Focus on women’s education and adult literacy

12. District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) – 1986–87

Aimed to universalize primary education by reducing dropout and improving learning outcomes,
especially in backward districts.

13. Operation Blackboard – 1987–88

Launched to improve school facilities—each primary school was to have at least two
classrooms, two teachers, and a blackboard.

14. Mid-Day Meal Scheme (1995)

Introduced to improve enrollment, attendance, and nutritional status of primary school children
through free cooked meals.
15. School Chalo Abhiyan (1995–96)
A mass campaign promoting 100% school enrollment and retention of all children in primary
education.

16. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) – 2000–01

Flagship program to achieve universal elementary education (6–14 years).
Focus: Access, retention, quality improvement, and bridging gender/social gaps.

17. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) Scheme – 2004

Established residential schools for girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC/minority communities in
educationally backward blocks.

18. National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005

Developed by NCERT.
Key Ideas:

Child-centered learning

Constructivist pedagogy

Inclusive and activity-based education

Environmental awareness and peace education

19. Right to Education (RTE) Act – 2009 (Implemented from April 1, 2010)
Ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years under Article 21A of the
Constitution.

Mandates 25% reservation for disadvantaged children in private schools.

Focus on child-friendly, stress-free learning.

20. Free and Compulsory Education Act – 2009

Another name for the RTE Act, reinforcing education as a fundamental right.

🎓 Institutions for Higher Education

21. IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) – 1985, New Delhi
Established to provide distance and open learning opportunities, offering flexibility and access to
higher education for all sections of society.

🌏 Modern Policy Framework

22. National Education Policy (NEP) – 2020
A historic reform replacing the 1986 policy after 34 years.
Vision: “Education for the 21st Century – Equitable, Inclusive, and Holistic Learning.”

Key Highlights:

School Education:

5+3+3+4 structure replacing 10+2 system

Emphasis on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)

Foundational literacy and numeracy mission by 2025

Multilingualism and promotion of mother tongue as medium of instruction till Grade 5

Board exams to assess core competencies rather than rote learning

Higher Education:

Aim: 50% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) by 2035

Establishment of Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs)

Flexible entry-exit options with Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

Single Higher Education Regulator: HECI (Higher Education Commission of India)

Integration of vocational and liberal education

Teacher Education:

4-year Integrated [Link]. as the minimum qualification by 2030

National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST)

Technology and Research:

National Educational Technology Forum (NETF)

National Research Foundation (NRF) for promoting research and innovation

Equity and Inclusion:

Special focus on disadvantaged regions, gender inclusion, and differently-abled learners

[Link]

Some major Linguistics one liners

(1) Noam Chomsky was born on 7 December, 1928. He was father of modern linguistics.

(2) Theory of Biolinguistics is given by Noam Chomsky.

(3) Noam Chomsky developed Transformational Generative Grammar in 1950.

(4) The Syntactic Structures is a book written by Noam Chomsky in 1957.

(5) Reflections on language is a book written by Noam Chomsky in 1975.

(6) There are 20 vowel sounds in English IPA.

(7) There are 24 consonant sounds in English IPA.

(8) Synchrony is a term introduced by the linguist Saussure which refers to the state of a
language as it exists at any given time.

(9) Diachrony is a term denotes historical perspective for studying language.

(10) Acceptance/Unacceptance is pair of terms introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1965 to

describe native speaker's intuitions about the grammatical correctness, or otherwise, of
sentences.

(11) The system of communications within a community is called Langue.

(12) Performance is a term introduced by Chomsky to describe "the actual use of language in
concrete situations'.

(13) Competence is a term to describe the knowledge possessed by native users of a language
which enables them to speak and introduced by Chomsky.

(14) The IPA came into existence in the year 1998.

(15) The study of signs is termed as Semiotics.

(16) Syntagmatic is a term which refers to the sequential characteristics of language.

(17) A minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language is called Morpheme.

(18) The term Elision refers to omissions of certain sounds, syllables or even words in
continuous speech.

(19) Juncture refers to the phenomenon of pauses in speech.

(20) Stress is the degree of force with which a sound of syllable is uttered.

(21) Suprasegment are also called secondary phonemes.

(22) The term Homophones is used to designate words which are spelt differently but
pronounced alike and which are different in meaning.

(23) There are three nasal sounds are there in the English language.

(24) In Transformational Generative Grammar, the 'Generative' means 'to produce' 'to develop'
'to predict'.

(25) Words which represent the sounds of their referents are called Onomatopoeia.

(26) Clipping is a method of word formation whereby on or more syllables are removed from
longer words.

(27) Palatal are articulted by raising the front of the tongue towards the hard palate.

(28) Sounds articulated by the tip of the tongue placed against the upper teeth are called
Dental.

(29) Sounds articulated by two lips are called Bilabial.

(30) Syllable is a unit of speech which is at a level higher than the speech sound or phoneme.

(31) Minimal pairs are words which higher only in one phoneme.

(32) Triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination of a diphthong and a the weak vowel.

(33) Derivation is a processes of word formation by which new words are formed by attaching
prefixes or suffixes to the base form.
A list of important literary terms along with the critics/theorists
(propounders) associated with them.

This will be useful for teaching or quick reference:

Key Literary Terms and Propounders

A. Classical Period

1. Mimesis (Imitation) – Plato and Aristotle

2. Catharsis – Aristotle (Poetics)
3. Hamartia (Tragic Flaw) – Aristotle
4. Anagnorisis (Recognition) – Aristotle
5. Peripeteia (Reversal of Fortune) –Aristotle
6. Unities (Time, Place, Action) – Aristotle (later emphasized by French critics)

B. Renaissance & Neoclassical

1. Poetic Diction – Alexander Pope (Essay on Criticism)

2. Heroic Couplet – perfected by Geoffrey Chaucer and Alexander Pope

3. Three Styles (High, Middle, Low) –John Dryden

C. Romanticism

1. Spontaneous Overflow of Powerful Feelings - William Wordsworth (Preface to Lyrical Ballads)

2. Negative Capability – John Keats
3. Organic Form – Samuel Taylor Coleridge
4. Art for Art’s Sake –Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde

D. Modern & Contemporary Criticism

1. Objective Correlative –T. S. Eliot

2. Defamiliarization– Victor Shklovsky (Russian Formalist)
3. Intentional Fallacy – W. K. Wimsatt & Monroe Beardsley (New Criticism)
4. Affective Fallacy – W. K. Wimsatt & Monroe Beardsley
5. Death of the Author – Roland Barthes
6. Discourse / Power & Knowledge – Michel Foucault
7. Deconstruction–Jacques Derrida
8. Différance – Jacques Derrida
9. Dialogism / Heteroglossia – Mikhail Bakhtin
10. Binary Oppositions (and their critique) – Claude Lévi-Strauss (structuralism), challenged by
Derrida
11. Carnivalesque– Mikhail Bakhtin
12. Unconscious (Applied to Literature) – Sigmund Freud and later Jacques Lacan
13. Myth Archetypes – Carl Jung and Northrop Frye

E. Postcolonial & Cultural Studies

1. Orientalism – Edward Said

2. Hybridity– Homi K. Bhabha
3. Subaltern – Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

✅ This list covers classical, romantic, modern, and postcolonial terms with their main
propounders.

An Overview of Important Movements in English literature:

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1. Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Literature (c. 450–1066)
• Movement: Oral heroic poetry, Christian influence, epic tradition
• Writers/Works:
• Beowulf (Anonymous)
• Caedmon, Cynewulf

2. Middle English Literature (1066–1500)

• Movement: Religious writings, allegory, courtly love, beginnings of drama
• Writers/Works:
• Geoffrey Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales)
• William Langland (Piers Plowman)
• Sir Thomas Malory (Le Morte d’Arthur)

3. The Renaissance (1500–1660)

• Movement: Humanism, classical revival, Elizabethan poetry & drama
• Writers/Works:
• Sir Thomas More (Utopia)
• Edmund Spenser (The Faerie Queene)
• William Shakespeare (plays & sonnets)
• Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus)
• Ben Jonson (Volpone)

4. Metaphysical Poetry (17th Century)

• Movement: Complex imagery, philosophy, conceits
• Writers: John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughan
5. Cavalier Poetry (17th Century)
• Movement: Light lyric poetry, loyalty to monarchy
• Writers: Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew

6. Restoration Literature (1660–1700)

• Movement: Satire, comedy of manners, heroic drama
• Writers/Works:
• John Dryden (Absalom and Achitophel)
• William Congreve (The Way of the World)

7. Augustan Age / Neoclassicism (1700–1745)

• Movement: Reason, order, satire, classical ideals
• Writers:
• Alexander Pope (The Rape of the Lock)
• Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s Travels)
• Joseph Addison & Richard Steele (The Spectator)

8. Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)

• Movement: Pre-Romantic, sentimentalism, graveyard poets
• Writers:
• Samuel Johnson (Dictionary of the English Language)
• Thomas Gray (Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard)
• Oliver Goldsmith (The Vicar of Wakefield)

9. Romanticism (1798–1837)
• Movement: Emotion, imagination, nature, individualism
• Writers:
• William Wordsworth (Lyrical Ballads)
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)
• Lord Byron (Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage)
• Percy Bysshe Shelley (Prometheus Unbound)
• John Keats (Ode to a Nightingale)

10. Victorian Literature (1837–1901)

• Movement: Realism, morality, social issues, industrial age concerns
• Writers:
• Charles Dickens (David Copperfield, Hard Times)
• Alfred Lord Tennyson (In Memoriam)
• Robert Browning (The Ring and the Book)
• Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Aurora Leigh)
• George Eliot (Middlemarch)
• Thomas Hardy (Tess of the D’Urbervilles)
11. Aestheticism & Decadence (Late 19th Century)
• Movement: “Art for art’s sake,” beauty over morality
• Writers:
• Oscar Wilde (The Picture of Dorian Gray)
• Walter Pater (The Renaissance)

12. Modernism (1901–1945)

• Movement: Experimental style, stream of consciousness, disillusionment after WWI
• Writers:
• T.S. Eliot (The Waste Land)
• James Joyce (Ulysses)
• Virginia Woolf (Mrs Dalloway)
• D.H. Lawrence (Sons and Lovers)
• W.B. Yeats (The Second Coming)

13. Postmodernism (1945–Present)

• Movement: Fragmentation, metafiction, irony, multiple perspectives
• Writers:
• Samuel Beckett (Waiting for Godot)
• George Orwell (1984)
• Salman Rushdie (Midnight’s Children)
• Angela Carter (The Bloody Chamber)
• Julian Barnes (Flaubert’s Parrot)

*MAJOR WORKS WITH SUBTITLES:*

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*Classical Literature:*

1. "Paradise Lost": A Poem Written in Ten Books – John Milton

2. "Don Quixote": The Ingenious Gentleman of La Mancha – Miguel de Cervantes

3. "Gulliver's Travels": Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World – Jonathan Swift

4. "The Divine Comedy": Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso – Dante Alighieri

5. "Utopia": Concerning the Best State of a Commonwealth – Thomas More

*19th Century Literature:*

6. "Frankenstein": The Modern Prometheus – Mary Shelley

7. "Moby-Dick": Or, The Whale – Herman Melville

8. "Pride and Prejudice": A Novel – Jane Austen

9. "Jane Eyre": An Autobiography – Charlotte Brontë

10. "The Picture of Dorian Gray": A Philosophical Novel – Oscar Wilde

*20th Century Literature*

11. "Brave New World": A Novel – Aldous Huxley

12. "1984": A Novel – George Orwell

13. "Heart of Darkness": A Narrative – Joseph Conrad

14. "The Great Gatsby": A Novel – F. Scott Fitzgerald

15. "Catch-22": A Novel – Joseph Heller

*Plays:*

16. "Doctor Faustus": The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus –
Christopher Marlowe

17. "Hamlet": The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark – William Shakespeare

18. "A Doll’s House": A Play in Three Acts – Henrik Ibsen

19. "Pygmalion": A Romance in Five Acts – George Bernard Shaw

20. "Death of a Salesman": Certain Private Conversations in Two Acts and a Requiem – Arthur
Miller

*Philosophical and Political Works:*

21. "Leviathan": Or, The Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil
– Thomas Hobbes
22. "The Social Contract": Or, Principles of Political Right – Jean-Jacques Rousseau

23. "Das Kapital": Critique of Political Economy – Karl Marx

24. "The Wealth of Nations": An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations –
Adam Smith

25. "The Prince": A Handbook for Tyrants – Niccolò Machiavelli

*Historical Works:*

26. "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" – Edward Gibbon

27. "A Tale of Two Cities": A Story of the French Revolution – Charles Dickens

28. "The Scarlet Letter": A Romance – Nathaniel Hawthorne

29. "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame": A Historical Novel – Victor Hugo

30. "War and Peace": A Chronicle of the Napoleonic Era – Leo Tolstoy

*Religious Texts:*

31. "The Pilgrim’s Progress": From This World to That Which Is to Come – John Bunyan

32. "City of God": Against the Pagans – Saint Augustine

33. "Summa Theologica": Summary of Theology – Thomas de Aquinas

34. "Confessions": A Spiritual Autobiography – Saint Augustine

35. "The Imitation of Christ": Spiritual Meditations – Thomas à Kempis

*Modern Classics:*

36. "To Kill a Mockingbird": A Novel – Harper Lee

37. "The Catcher in the Rye": A Coming-of-Age Novel – J.D. Salinger

38. "Beloved": A Novel – Toni Morrison

39. "Slaughterhouse-Five": The Children's Crusade – Kurt Vonnegut

40. "Of Mice and Men": A Play-Novelette – John Steinbeck

*Science and Exploration:*

41. "On the Origin of Species": By Means of Natural Selection – Charles Darwin

42. "A Brief History of Time": From the Big Bang to Black Holes – Stephen Hawking

43. "Silent Spring": The Environmental Awakening – Rachel Carson

44. "The Voyage of the Beagle": Darwin’s Naturalist Notes – Charles Darwin

45. "Cosmos": A Personal Voyage – Carl Sagan

*Other Influential Works:*

46. "Middlemarch": A Study of Provincial Life – George Eliot

47. "The Souls of Black Folk": Essays and Sketches – W.E.B. Du Bois

48. "The Bell Jar": A Semi-Autobiographical Novel – Sylvia Plath

49. "The Waste Land": A Poem – T.S. Eliot

50. "One Hundred Years of Solitude": A Chronicle of the Buendía Family – Gabriel García
Márquez

*An Explanation of Different Citation Styles and Systems:*

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*I. What is Citation?*

Citation is the formal way of giving credit to the original authors whose ideas, texts, theories, or
findings you refer to in your research. It serves three main purposes:

1. Acknowledges intellectual property.

2. Enhances credibility and academic honesty.

3. Enables readers to locate the sources.

*II. Major Citation Styles (with Features):*

*1. APA Style (American Psychological Association):*

Used in: Psychology, Education, Social Sciences.

In-text citation format: (Author, Year)

Reference list example:

Smith, J. (2020). Education and change. Routledge.

Example in-text:
According to Smith (2020), educational reform is necessary.
OR: Educational reform is necessary (Smith, 2020).

Latest version: APA 7th Edition.

*2. MLA Style (Modern Language Association):*

Used in: Humanities, especially English literature, cultural studies.

In-text citation format: (Author Page Number)

Works Cited example:

Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.

Example in-text:
“Freeing yourself was one thing, claiming ownership of that freed self was another” (Morrison
95).

Latest version: MLA 9th Edition.

*3. Chicago Style:*

Used in: History, Publishing, Arts.

*Two formats:*

Notes and Bibliography (Humanities): uses footnotes or endnotes.

Author-Date (Sciences): like APA.

*Footnote example:*
1. Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own (New York: Harcourt, 1929), 52.

Bibliography:
Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. New York: Harcourt, 1929.

*4. Harvard Style:*

Used in: Social sciences and natural sciences, especially in UK universities.

In-text: (Author, Year)

Reference:
Chomsky, N. (2002). Syntactic structures. Mouton de Gruyter.

*Note:* Very similar to APA but differs in formatting details.

*5. IEEE Style (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):*

Used in: Engineering and technical fields.

In-text citation: Numerical [1], [2], etc.

Reference list: Numbered according to appearance.

Example:
In recent studies [3], signal processing has improved.

Reference:
[3] A. Kumar, "Digital Communication", 2nd ed., Pearson, 2016.

*6. Vancouver Style:*

Used in: Medicine and health sciences.

In-text: Numeric (in round brackets or superscript).

Reference list: Numeric, in order of citation.

*7. Turabian Style:*

A simplified version of the Chicago style.

Used by: Students writing academic papers.

Has both notes-bibliography and author-date styles.

*III. Citation Components to Know:*

*1. In-text citation:* Short reference within the body of your paper.

*2. Bibliography / Works Cited / References:* Full details listed at the end.

*3. Footnotes / Endnotes:* Used in Chicago/Turabian styles to add source or commentary.

*IV. Common Terms in Citation Systems:*

*Et al.* – Latin for “and others,” used when citing multiple authors.

*Ibid.* – (Chicago style) Means “in the same place,” used for repeated citations.

*DOI* – Digital Object Identifier, used for digital journal articles.

*Plagiarism* – Failure to cite sources properly; ethically and academically punishable.

*V. Citation Management Tools:*

1. Zotero

2. Mendeley

3. EndNote

4. RefWorks

These help automatically format citations and manage references.

*VI. Citation Trends in UGC NET/JRF:*

Questions have been asked about:

Matching styles to disciplines (APA – Education, MLA – Literature, etc.)

Identifying correct citation formats.

Components of a bibliography.

Differences between in-text citation and footnotes.

Use of plagiarism-detection and referencing software.

*Important Literary Terms:*

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*1. Hamartia:*

Definition: A tragic flaw or error in judgment that leads to the hero’s downfall.

Origin: Greek Tragedy; central to Aristotle’s Poetics.

Example: Othello’s jealousy or Macbeth’s ambition.

Context: Integral to classical theories of tragedy; often tied to anagnorisis and peripeteia.

*2. Catharsis:*

Definition: Emotional purification or release experienced by the audience through the emotions
of pity and fear.

Source: Poetics by Aristotle

Conceptual Use: Not merely an emotional reaction, but a moral and psychological cleansing tied
to the structure of the tragic plot.

*3. Mimesis:*

Definition: Artistic representation or imitation of reality.

Philosophical Roots: Plato views mimesis skeptically; Aristotle defends it as natural and
educational.

Application: Applies to all art forms; essential in theories of realism and naturalism.

*4. Anagnorisis:*

Definition: Moment of recognition or discovery by the tragic hero.

Greek Tragedy Example: Oedipus realizing he has fulfilled the prophecy.

Function: Leads to catharsis; paired with peripeteia (reversal of fortune).

*5. Peripeteia:*

Definition: A sudden reversal of circumstances or fortune in a narrative.

Example: King Lear banishing Cordelia, leading to his downfall.

Structural Role: Found in the ideal tragic plot, as per Aristotle.

*6. Bildungsroman:*

Definition: A novel focused on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth
to adulthood.

German Origin: “Formation novel”

Examples: David Copperfield, Jane Eyre, The Catcher in the Rye

*7. Picaresque:*

Definition: A genre featuring a roguish but appealing protagonist who lives by their wits in a
corrupt society.

Structure: Episodic, first-person narration.

Example: Tom Jones, Don Quixote, Moll Flanders

*8. Stream of Consciousness:*

Definition: A narrative mode that captures the uninterrupted flow of characters’ thoughts and
feelings.

Pioneers: Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce

Examples: Mrs. Dalloway, Ulysses

*9. Negative Capability:*

Definition: The capacity to accept uncertainty and ambiguity without the need for rational
explanation.
Coined by: John Keats

Used to describe: Shakespeare’s dramatic art—“being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts,

without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.”

*10. Objective Correlative:*

Definition: A set of objects, a situation, or a chain of events that evokes a particular emotion in
the reader.

Coined by: T. S. Eliot (especially in his essay on Hamlet)

Function: Externalizes internal emotional states through concrete imagery.

*11. Intertextuality:*

Definition: The shaping of a text’s meaning by another text.

Origin: Julia Kristeva building on Mikhail Bakhtin’s dialogism.

Examples: Wide Sargasso Sea as a response to Jane Eyre; Joyce’s Ulysses as a rewriting of
Homer’s Odyssey.

*12. Metafiction:*

Definition: Fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, often exposing its own
fictional status.

Examples: If on a Winter's Night a Traveler by Italo Calvino; The French Lieutenant’s Woman by
John Fowles.

Theory: Postmodern narrative technique questioning realism and narrative authority.

*13. Aporia:*

Definition: A state of doubt or impasse; often a rhetorical or philosophical puzzle.

Use in Deconstruction: Jacques Derrida uses aporia to describe textual moments that
undermine definitive interpretation.

Example: Hamlet’s soliloquies reflect aporetic uncertainty.

*14. Carnivalesque:*
Definition: A literary mode that subverts and liberates the assumptions of the dominant style
through humor and chaos.

Coined by: Mikhail Bakhtin in his study of Rabelais

Key Ideas: Grotesque realism, role reversal, folk humor, body-centric imagery.

*15. Pathetic Fallacy:*

Definition: Attributing human emotions or traits to nature or inanimate objects.

Coined by: John Ruskin

Example: “The sullen wind was soon awake” (Porphyria’s Lover, Browning)

*16. Intentional Fallacy:*

Definition: The error of interpreting a literary work by the author’s intention rather than the text
itself.

Coined by: W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley

Critical Context: Cornerstone of New Criticism.

*17. Heteroglossia:*

Definition: The presence of multiple voices or expressions within a single text.

Conceptualized by: Mikhail Bakhtin

Example: Novels that combine various sociolects, ideologies, and registers (e.g., Middlemarch
or Ulysses).

*18. Allegory:*

Definition: A narrative in which characters, settings, and events stand for abstract ideas or moral
qualities.

Types: Political, religious, moral.

Examples: The Pilgrim’s Progress, Animal Farm

*19. Chiasmus:*
Definition: A rhetorical device in which concepts are repeated in reverse order.

Example: “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” – Macbeth

Use: Emphasizes paradox and contrast.

*20. Anagnorisis vs Peripeteia:*

Together: Define key turning points in Greek tragedy.

Example: In Oedipus Rex, anagnorisis (recognition of his identity) leads directly to peripeteia
(his fall).

*21. Catachresis:*

Definition: A strained or paradoxical metaphor.

Examples: “The voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses” – e.e. cummings

Used: Often in poststructuralist analysis to discuss displaced or excessive meaning.

*22. Parataxis and Hypotaxis:*

Parataxis: Phrases or clauses placed side by side without subordination.

“I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Hypotaxis: Use of subordinate clauses to show logical relationships.

“When I came, I saw that he had conquered.”

*23. Diaspora:*

Definition: The dispersion of people from their homeland and its literary representation.

Relevance: Central to postcolonial literature (e.g., Salman Rushdie, Jhumpa Lahiri, Derek
Walcott).

Themes: Identity, exile, hybridity, nostalgia.

*24. Ecriture Féminine:*

Definition: Feminine mode of writing that breaks with patriarchal discourse.

Coined by: Hélène Cixous

Key Work: The Laugh of the Medusa

Focus: Embodied language, fluidity, subversion of logocentrism.

*25. Simulacrum:*

Definition: A representation or imitation that replaces reality with hyperreality.

Theory: Jean Baudrillard

Examples: Disneyland, reality TV, postmodern fiction.

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*List of Abbreviations used for Research Methodology:*

*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning_😊🤗😍😊🤗😍😊🤗)*

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A. *et al.–* and others
B. *ibid. –* in the same place (used for repeated citations)
C. *cf. –* compare
D. *ante. –* before
E. *op. cit.* – in the work cited
F. *loc. cit.* – in the place cited
G. *viz. –* namely / that is to say
H. *i.e. –* that is
I. *e.g. –* for example
J. *N.B. –* note well / important
K. *etc. –* and so on
L. *n.d. –* no date
M. *n.p. –* no place / no publisher
N. *Vol. –* volume
O. *Ed. –* editor / edited by
P. *trans. –* translated by
Q. *ch. –* chapter
R. *p. / pp. –* page / pages
S. *DOI –* Digital Object Identifier
T. *ISSN –* International Standard Serial Number
U. *ISBN –* International Standard Book Number
V. *URL –* Uniform Resource Locator
*Important Literary Terms:*

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*1. Hamartia:*

Definition: A tragic flaw or error in judgment that leads to the hero’s downfall.

Origin: Greek Tragedy; central to Aristotle’s Poetics.

Example: Othello’s jealousy or Macbeth’s ambition.

Context: Integral to classical theories of tragedy; often tied to anagnorisis and peripeteia.

*2. Catharsis:*

Definition: Emotional purification or release experienced by the audience through the emotions
of pity and fear.

Source: Poetics by Aristotle

Conceptual Use: Not merely an emotional reaction, but a moral and psychological cleansing tied
to the structure of the tragic plot.

*3. Mimesis:*

Definition: Artistic representation or imitation of reality.

Philosophical Roots: Plato views mimesis skeptically; Aristotle defends it as natural and
educational.

Application: Applies to all art forms; essential in theories of realism and naturalism.

*4. Anagnorisis:*

Definition: Moment of recognition or discovery by the tragic hero.

Greek Tragedy Example: Oedipus realizing he has fulfilled the prophecy.

Function: Leads to catharsis; paired with peripeteia (reversal of fortune).

*5. Peripeteia:*

Definition: A sudden reversal of circumstances or fortune in a narrative.

Example: King Lear banishing Cordelia, leading to his downfall.

Structural Role: Found in the ideal tragic plot, as per Aristotle.

*6. Bildungsroman:*

Definition: A novel focused on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth
to adulthood.

German Origin: “Formation novel”

Examples: David Copperfield, Jane Eyre, The Catcher in the Rye

*7. Picaresque:*

Definition: A genre featuring a roguish but appealing protagonist who lives by their wits in a
corrupt society.

Structure: Episodic, first-person narration.

Example: Tom Jones, Don Quixote, Moll Flanders

*8. Stream of Consciousness:*

Definition: A narrative mode that captures the uninterrupted flow of characters’ thoughts and
feelings.

Pioneers: Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce

Examples: Mrs. Dalloway, Ulysses

*9. Negative Capability:*

Definition: The capacity to accept uncertainty and ambiguity without the need for rational
explanation.

Coined by: John Keats

Used to describe: Shakespeare’s dramatic art—“being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts,
without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.”

*10. Objective Correlative:*

Definition: A set of objects, a situation, or a chain of events that evokes a particular emotion in
the reader.

Coined by: T. S. Eliot (especially in his essay on Hamlet)

Function: Externalizes internal emotional states through concrete imagery.

*11. Intertextuality:*

Definition: The shaping of a text’s meaning by another text.

Origin: Julia Kristeva building on Mikhail Bakhtin’s dialogism.

Examples: Wide Sargasso Sea as a response to Jane Eyre; Joyce’s Ulysses as a rewriting of
Homer’s Odyssey.

*12. Metafiction:*

Definition: Fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, often exposing its own
fictional status.

Examples: If on a Winter's Night a Traveler by Italo Calvino; The French Lieutenant’s Woman by
John Fowles.

Theory: Postmodern narrative technique questioning realism and narrative authority.

*13. Aporia:*

Definition: A state of doubt or impasse; often a rhetorical or philosophical puzzle.

Use in Deconstruction: Jacques Derrida uses aporia to describe textual moments that
undermine definitive interpretation.

Example: Hamlet’s soliloquies reflect aporetic uncertainty.

*14. Carnivalesque:*

Definition: A literary mode that subverts and liberates the assumptions of the dominant style
through humor and chaos.
Coined by: Mikhail Bakhtin in his study of Rabelais

Key Ideas: Grotesque realism, role reversal, folk humor, body-centric imagery.

*15. Pathetic Fallacy:*

Definition: Attributing human emotions or traits to nature or inanimate objects.

Coined by: John Ruskin

Example: “The sullen wind was soon awake” (Porphyria’s Lover, Browning)

*16. Intentional Fallacy:*

Definition: The error of interpreting a literary work by the author’s intention rather than the text
itself.

Coined by: W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley

Critical Context: Cornerstone of New Criticism.

*17. Heteroglossia:*

Definition: The presence of multiple voices or expressions within a single text.

Conceptualized by: Mikhail Bakhtin

Example: Novels that combine various sociolects, ideologies, and registers (e.g., Middlemarch
or Ulysses).

*18. Allegory:*

Definition: A narrative in which characters, settings, and events stand for abstract ideas or moral
qualities.

Types: Political, religious, moral.

Examples: The Pilgrim’s Progress, Animal Farm

*19. Chiasmus:*

Definition: A rhetorical device in which concepts are repeated in reverse order.

Example: “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” – Macbeth

Use: Emphasizes paradox and contrast.

*20. Anagnorisis vs Peripeteia:*

Together: Define key turning points in Greek tragedy.

Example: In Oedipus Rex, anagnorisis (recognition of his identity) leads directly to peripeteia
(his fall).

*21. Catachresis:*

Definition: A strained or paradoxical metaphor.

Examples: “The voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses” – e.e. cummings

Used: Often in poststructuralist analysis to discuss displaced or excessive meaning.

*22. Parataxis and Hypotaxis:*

Parataxis: Phrases or clauses placed side by side without subordination.

“I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Hypotaxis: Use of subordinate clauses to show logical relationships.

“When I came, I saw that he had conquered.”

*23. Diaspora:*

Definition: The dispersion of people from their homeland and its literary representation.

Relevance: Central to postcolonial literature (e.g., Salman Rushdie, Jhumpa Lahiri, Derek
Walcott).

Themes: Identity, exile, hybridity, nostalgia.

*24. Ecriture Féminine:*

Definition: Feminine mode of writing that breaks with patriarchal discourse.

Coined by: Hélène Cixous

Key Work: The Laugh of the Medusa

Focus: Embodied language, fluidity, subversion of logocentrism.

*25. Simulacrum:*

Definition: A representation or imitation that replaces reality with hyperreality.

Theory: Jean Baudrillard

Examples: Disneyland, reality TV, postmodern fiction.

*Some Basic Terms Coined by Writers in Literature*

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1. Objective Correlative by [Link]
2. Dissociation of Sensibility by [Link]
3. Willing to Suspension of Disbelief by Coleridge
4. Negative Capability by Keats
5. American Renaissance by F.O Matthiessen
[Link] by Bharata
7. Rasa concept by Bharata
8. Kavya Prakasha by Mamata
9. Dhvanyaloka or Suggestion by Anandvardhana
10. Vakrokti by Kuntaka
11. Riti, Guna, Kavyalankara by Vaman
12. Positivism by August Campte
13. Romantic by Friedrich Schlegel
14. Metaphysical Poets by [Link]
15. Upstart Crow is Robert Green
16. Cultural Materialism by Raymond Williams
17. Imagism by [Link]
18. Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson
19. Horizon of Expectation by [Link]
20. Strategic Essentialism by Gayitri Spivak
21. Utilitarianism by J.S..Mill
22. Incunabula means Books published before 1501
23. Tension by Allen Tate
24. Strong Lined Poetry by [Link]
25. Dictum 'Life Imitates Art' by John Ruskin
26. Theatre of Cruelty by Jerzy
27. Epic Theatre by Bertold Bretch
28. Theatre of Oppressed by Augusto Bal
29. Expressionist Theatre by George Kaiser
30. The Guilded Age by Mark Twain
31. Ambiguity by William Empson
32. Intertextuality by Julia Kristeva
33. Heteroglossia by [Link]
34. Dialogic Imagination by [Link]
35. Sublime by Longinus
36. Carnivalesque by [Link]
37. Jacobian Novel by Garry Kelly
38. Surrealism by Andre Breton
39. Decorum by Horace
40. The wasp of Twickenham by Pope
41. Theory of Avant Grade by Peter Berger
42. Chaucer of Scotland is William Dunbar
43. Poetic Justice by Rhymer
44. TouchStone method by [Link]
45. Pathetic Fallacy by John Ruskin
46. Theory of Population by Malthus
47. Provincialising Europe by Dipesh Chakravarthy
48. Egotistical Sublime is to William Wordsworth
49. Young Juvenile is Thomas Nash
50. Macabre element by John Webster
51. Sprung Rhythm and Curtal Sonnet and Inscape and Instress are by [Link]
52. Life Force by [Link]
53. Light of Asia is Admin Arnold
54. Only Connect by [Link]
55. Sports of Time by W. Wordsworth
56. Orientalism by [Link]
57. Womanism by Alice Walker
58. Third Space by Edward Doha
59. Hybridity by Homi Bhaba
60. Reception aesthetics by Wolfgang User
61. Langue and Parole by Ferdinand Saussure
62. Interlanguage by [Link]
63. Difference and Defferecnce by Derrida
64. Signs by Saussure
65. Stock Responses by [Link]
66. Deep Structure by [Link]
67. Competency and Performance by [Link]
68. Readerly and Writerly Text by [Link]
69. Ironic and Indexical by [Link]
[Link] by Julia Kristeva
72. Flaneur by Walter Benjamin
73. Chora by [Link]
74. Simulacrum or Simulacra by Jean Baurdrillard
75. Subaltern by [Link]
76. Metahistory by Hayden White
77. Polyphony by [Link]
78. Hegemony by Antonio Gramsky
79. Theoretician of Sociability is Malcolm Braburry
80. New Historicism by Greenblatt

*Some Important Terms/Concepts to be Remembered:*

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*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning_😊🤗😍😊🤗😍😊🤗😍)*
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Hegemony – Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks

Encoding/Decoding – Stuart Hall, Encoding/Decoding (1973)

Cultural Materialism – Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (1977)

Hybridity – Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (1994)

Structure of Feeling – Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (1977)

Subaltern – Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)

Imagined Communities – Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1983)

Discourse – Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969)

Orientalism – Edward Said, Orientalism (1978)

Interpellation – Louis Althusser, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970)

Carnivalesque – Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (1965)

Popular Culture – John Fiske, Understanding Popular Culture (1989)

Third Space – Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (1994)

Cultural Hegemony – Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks

The Gaze – Laura Mulvey, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1975)
Negative Capability – John Keats

Organic Form – Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Art for Art’s Sake – Walter Pater / Oscar Wilde

Romantic

Imagination – William Wordsworth / Samuel T. Coleridge

Fancy and Imagination – Samuel T. Coleridge

Digital & Contemporary Theories

Hypertext – George Landow

Cybertext – Espen Aarseth

Transmedia

Storytelling – Henry Jenkins

Remediation – Jay David Bolter & Richard Grusin

Algorithmic Criticism – Stephen Ramsay

Historical and Materialist Criticism

New Historicism – Stephen Greenblatt

Thick Description – Clifford Geertz

Cultural Poetics – Stephen Greenblatt

Historicism – Leopold von Ranke, R.G. Collingwood

Dialogic Imagination – Mikhail Bakhtin

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*CULTURAL STUDIES_PART2*

*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning _☺️🤗😍☺️🤗😍☺️🤗😍☺️🤗😍)*

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*Cultural Studies Thinkers and Their Seminal Works:*

*1. Raymond Williams:*

Culture and Society (1958)

Traces the development of the idea of culture in relation to industrial society.

The Long Revolution (1961)

Introduces the concept of cultural revolution alongside democratic and industrial revolutions.

Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (1976)

Defines key terms in Cultural Studies like "culture," "hegemony," "tradition."

Marxism and Literature (1977)

Develops the theory of cultural materialism, combining Marxist analysis with cultural critique.

*2. Richard Hoggart:*

The Uses of Literacy (1957)

Foundational work analyzing working-class culture and its transformation under mass media
influence.

*3. E. P. Thompson:*

The Making of the English Working Class (1963)

Explores how the working class actively formed its own culture and consciousness.

*4. Stuart Hall:*

Encoding/Decoding (1980)

Introduces the model of communication in media studies—encoding by producers and decoding

by audiences.
Policing the Crisis (1978) (with others)

Analyzes media hysteria around "mugging" and its racial implications.

Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990)

Explores diasporic identity, hybridity, and the fragmented self.

Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997) (editor)

Crucial for understanding how representation works in culture and media.

*5. Antonio Gramsci:*

Selections from the Prison Notebooks (1971, Eng. trans.)

Introduces the concept of hegemony, which became central to Cultural Studies.

*6. Michel Foucault:*

Discipline and Punish (1975; Eng. 1977)

Examines how institutions discipline bodies and produce docile subjects.

The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969; Eng. 1972)

Introduces the method of discursive analysis.

The History of Sexuality Vol. I (1976; Eng. 1978)

Explores how power and knowledge construct sexuality.

*7. Dick Hebdige:*

Subculture: The Meaning of Style (1979)

Analyzes youth subcultures (like punk) and their stylistic resistance to dominant norms.

*8. Judith Butler:*

Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990)

Introduces the concept of gender performativity, which influenced cultural and queer theory.
*9. Edward Said:*

Orientalism (1978)

Foundational postcolonial text showing how the West constructed the East as the 'Other'.

*10. Homi K. Bhabha:*

The Location of Culture (1994)

Introduces key concepts like hybridity, third space, and mimicry.

*11. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:*

Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)

Challenges Western academia’s ability to represent marginalized voices.

*12. Jean Baudrillard:*

Simulacra and Simulation (1981; Eng. 1983)

Analyzes the postmodern world of images and hyperreality where representations replace
reality.

*13. Theodor Adorno & Max Horkheimer:*

Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947; Eng. 1972)

Critique of mass culture as a tool of domination; key for early Cultural Industry theory.

*14. bell hooks:*

Ain’t I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism (1981)

Examines the intersection of race, gender, and class in media and literature.

Black Looks: Race and Representation (1992)

Explores representation of Black bodies in popular culture.

*15. Arjun Appadurai:*

Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (1996)

Introduces ideas like ethnoscapes and mediascapes to understand global cultural flows.

*16. Ashis Nandy:*

The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (1983)

Analyzes the psychological impact of colonialism on both colonizer and colonized.

*17. Partha Chatterjee:*

The Nation and Its Fragments (1993)

Challenges Benedict Anderson’s nationalism; focuses on colonial modernity in India.

null:

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*CULTURAL STUDIES_PART 3:*

*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning_☺️🤗😍☺️🤗😍)*

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*Significant quotations + Core concepts + glossary of important terms:*

*1. Significant Quotations in Cultural Studies:*

*a. Raymond Williams*

> “Culture is ordinary: that is the first fact.”

— Culture is Ordinary (1958)

Williams argues against elitist conceptions of culture. For him, culture is not confined to the arts
but found in everyday life, making it a central element of social analysis.

*b. Stuart Hall*

> “It is through culture that processes of identification are constructed.”

— Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990)

Hall emphasizes that identity is not static or essential but constructed through representation,
language, and cultural practices.
*c. Michel Foucault*

> “Power is everywhere; not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from
everywhere.”
— The History of Sexuality, Volume I (1976)

Foucault reconceptualizes power as decentralized and diffused through institutions, discourse,

and practices—key to understanding modern cultural studies.

*d. Edward Said*

> “They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented.”

— Orientalism (1978), quoting Karl Marx

Said critiques Western constructions of the "Orient" as voiceless and in need of Western
interpretation—highlighting imperialist ideology in cultural representation.

*e. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak*

> “The subaltern cannot speak.”

— Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)

Spivak argues that the voices of the marginalized (subalterns) are often overwritten by dominant
discourses, even in efforts to recover or represent them.

*f. Judith Butler*

> “Gender is a kind of imitation for which there is no original.”

— Gender Trouble (1990)

Butler asserts that gender is not a fixed essence but is continually produced and performed
through social rituals and discourse.

*g. bell hooks*

> “Representation is the ‘hot issue’ in terms of the connection between race and culture.”
— Black Looks: Race and Representation (1992)

hooks critiques how Black people, especially women, are stereotyped and exoticized in visual
culture and literature, calling for new, empowering forms of representation.

*2. Core Concepts in Cultural Studies:*

*a. Hegemony – Antonio Gramsci*

Gramsci coined the term to describe the dominance of one class over others through cultural
means rather than force.
Reference: Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (1971)

*b. Cultural Materialism – Raymond Williams*

This approach analyzes literature and culture in relation to historical and material conditions.
Williams emphasized the social function of culture.
Reference: Williams, Marxism and Literature (1977)

*c. Encoding/Decoding – Stuart Hall*

This model suggests that media producers encode meanings into texts, but audiences may
decode them in different ways—dominant, negotiated, or oppositional readings.
Reference: Hall, Encoding/Decoding (1973)

*d. Discourse – Michel Foucault*

Discourse refers to systems of knowledge and language that define what is sayable and
thinkable in a given context, deeply connected to power.
Reference: Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969)

*e. Hybridity – Homi K. Bhabha*

Cultural hybridity refers to the mixture of cultural signs and practices in colonial and postcolonial
contexts, leading to the creation of "in-between" identities.
Reference: Bhabha, The Location of Culture (1994)

*f. Representation – Stuart Hall*

Hall argues that representation is the process through which meaning is produced and
exchanged. It is central to the construction of identity.
Reference: Hall, Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997)

*g. Orientalism – Edward Said*

A critical concept that describes how the West created a patronizing image of the East to justify
colonization.
Reference: Said, Orientalism (1978)

*h. Subaltern – Spivak*

Borrowed from Gramsci, Spivak’s use highlights those excluded from hegemonic power and
discourse, particularly colonized women.
Reference: Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)

*3. Glossary of Key Terms in Cultural Studies:*

*1. Culture:*

Everyday practices, meanings, symbols, and rituals through which societies express identity.

Raymond Williams, Keywords (1976)

*2. Ideology:*

A system of beliefs that legitimizes power structures; often internalized as common sense.

Althusser, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970)

*3. Hegemony:*

Dominance maintained through consent rather than coercion.

Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (1971)

*4. Discourse*

Ways of speaking, writing, or thinking that shape knowledge and subjectivity.

Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969)

*5. Representation:*

The process through which meaning is constructed and communicated.

Stuart Hall, Representation (1997)

*6. Encoding/Decoding:*

A communication model illustrating how meaning is created and interpreted.

Hall, Encoding/Decoding (1973)

*7. Hybridity:*
The blending of cultures resulting in new identities.

Bhabha, The Location of Culture (1994)

*8. Subculture:*

A group with distinct norms and values within a dominant culture, often oppositional.

Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style (1979)

*9. Subaltern:*

Those marginalized or silenced within dominant power structures.

Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)

*10. Panopticism:*

A metaphor for modern disciplinary societies, where surveillance induces conformity.

Foucault, Discipline and Punish (1975)

*11. Performativity:*

The idea that identity (especially gender) is enacted through repeated social performance.

Butler, Gender Trouble (1990)

*12. Postcolonialism:*

The study of cultural legacies and power structures after colonial rule.

Said, Culture and Imperialism (1993)

*13. Articulation:*

The linking of disparate elements to form a temporary, coherent structure.

Hall, Marxism and Interpretation of Culture (1986)

*14. Cultural Identity:*

A dynamic, negotiated construct shaped by history, language, and culture.

Hall, Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990)

*15. Strategic Essentialism:*

The use of simplified identity categories for political mobilization.

Spivak, cited in Outside in the Teaching Machine (1993)

*Important First Lines of English Novels:*

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1. "Call me Ishmael."
— Moby-Dick by Herman Melville (1851)

2. "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune,
must be in want of a wife."
— Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen (1813)

3. "All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way."
— Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy (1878) (Though Russian, often studied in comparative English
literature)

4. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times..."

— A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens (1859)

5. "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen."
— Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell (1949)

6. "In my younger and more vulnerable years my father gave me some advice that I've been
turning over in my mind ever since."
— The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald (1925)

7. "You better not never tell nobody but God."

— The Color Purple by Alice Walker (1982)

8. "All this happened, more or less."

— Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut (1969)

9. "Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the
road..."
— A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce (1916)
10. "Someone must have slandered Josef K., for one morning, without having done anything
truly wrong, he was arrested."
— The Trial by Franz Kafka (1925, posthumous English publication in 1937)

11. "Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself."
— Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf (1925)

12. "Last night I dreamt I went to Manderley again."

— Rebecca by Daphne du Maurier (1938)

13. "It was a queer, sultry summer, the summer they electrocuted the Rosenbergs..."
— The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath (1963)

14. "124 was spiteful."

— Beloved by Toni Morrison (1987)

15. "It was a pleasure to burn."

— Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury (1953)

16. "There was no possibility of taking a walk that day."

— Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë (1847)

17. "The past is a foreign country: they do things differently there."

— The Go-Between by L.P. Hartley (1953)

18. "In the beginning, sometimes I left messages in the street."

— The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood (1985)

19. "They shoot the white girl first."

— Paradise by Toni Morrison (1997)

20. "Ships at a distance have every man's wish on board."

— Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston (1937)

*English translations of Indian mythology books:*

*The Mahabharata:*

1. Charles Wilkins (1785) - Translated the Bhagavad Gita, a part of the Mahabharata.
2. Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1805) - Translated the Sabha Parva, a part of the Mahabharata.
3. Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883-1896) - Translated the entire Mahabharata into English.

*The Ramayana:*

1. Charles Wilkins (1795) - Translated the Ramayana into English.

2. Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1808) - Translated the Ramayana into English.
3. Ralph Griffith (1870-1874) - Translated the Ramayana into English.

*The Puranas:*

1. H.H. Wilson (1840) - Translated the Vishnu Purana into English.

2. H.H. Wilson (1864-1874) - Translated the Puranas into English.

*The Upanishads:*

1. Rammohan Roy (1816) - Translated the Upanishads into English.

2. Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1805) - Translated the Upanishads into English.
3. Max Müller (1879-1884) - Translated the Upanishads into English.

*The Bhagavad Gita:*

1. Charles Wilkins (1785) - Translated the Bhagavad Gita into English.

2. Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1805) - Translated the Bhagavad Gita into English.
3. Ralph Griffith (1887) - Translated the Bhagavad Gita into English.

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*Very Tricky Mcqs : *
☺️ ☺️ ☺️ ☺️ ☺️ ☺️

👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻
*(Dr. Nits_Have a Happy and Smart Learning)*

1. Essay on Man - a poem by Pope

2. Essay on Milton - a prose by Macaulay

3. Essay on Criticism - a poem by Pope

4. Essay in Criticism - a prose by Mathew arnold

5. Essay of Elia - Charles Lamb

6. Essay on Ancient and Modern - T. S. Eliot

7. The Rape of lock - Epic poem by Pope

8. The Rape of Lucrece - a long poem by Shakespeare

9. The way of the world - A comedy by William Congreve

10. The way of All Flesh - a novel by Samuel Butler

11. The Prelude - A poem by William wordsworth

12 Preludes - A poem by T. S. Eliot

13. Elizabethan essays - prose by T.S. Eliot

14. Elizabeth and Essex - prose by Lytton Stratchey

15. Everyman - One of the best known morality plays

16. Everyman in His Humour - satirical comedy by Ben Jonson

17. The Book of The Duchess- The poem by Chaucer

18. The Book of Martyrs - a story by John Foxe

19. The Pilgrim progress - By John Bunyan

20. The Pilgrims of the Rhine - Bulwer Lytton

21. The life of opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent - a novel by sterne

22. Tristram and Iscult - Mathew arnold

23. Lyrical Ballads - collection poems by Coleridge and wordsworth

24. Preface to Lyrical Ballads - A prose by Wordsworth

25. All for love - A blank verse Tragedy by Dryden

26. Love Labour's Lost- A Drama by Shakespeare

27. A portrait of the Artist as a Young man - a novel by Joyce

28. Portrait of the Artist as a Young dog - Dylan Thomas

29. Portrait of Dare - a novel by Francis Bret James

30. A portrait of a lady - a novel by Henry James

31. The Duchess of Dadna - a drama by Oscar wilde

32. The Duchess of malfi - Tragedy John webster

33. A Tale of Two Cities - a novel by Dickens

34. A Tale of Manchester life - a novel by Mrs. E. Gaskell

35. The Anatomy of Melancholy - a critique by Robert Burton

36. The Anatomy of the World - a poem prince Henry written by John Donne

37. The Battle of books - a satire by Swift

38. A Battle of Maldon - Anglo-Saxon war poem

39. A women killed with kindness - a drama by Heywood

40. The women in the moon - a play by Lily

41. Ode on the Nativity - a poem by Milton

42. Ode on Duty - Poem by Wordsworth.

*SOME IMPORTANT TERMS*

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👉 *HEROIC COUPLET*
1. A couplet written in iambic pentametre is
known as a ‘heroic couplet’.
2. Chaucer was a great master of this device.
3. Later Waller used the couplet to great advan-
tage.
4. Goldsmith wrote his famous “The Deserted
Village” in couplets.
5. Dryden was also a great master of the Heroic
Couplet.
6. It was finally perfected in the hands of Pope.

👉 *IAMB OR IAMBUS FOOT*

It comprises one unaccented (or unstressed) foot
followed by an accented (stressed) one, e.g.
(i) Annoyed
(ii) Produce
(iii) Conduct
(iv) Depart
(v) Deny, etc.

👉 *INVERSION*
It is the figure of speech (much used by Milton
but ridiculed by many modern critics) in which words
are presented in their unnatural order, e.g.
O God’s glory I sing,
And to His Mercy I pray.

👉 *LITOTES*
1. It is akin to “understatement” which is some-times used by writers to emphasise the desired
mean- ing, e.g. India is not lagging in Information Technology.
2. However, more often it is an “understatement used ironically, especially using a negative to
ex-
press the category as :
‘I shan’t be sorry when it’s over’ meaning ‘I shall be very glad’, or ‘It was no easy matter’ for ‘It
was
very difficult.’”

👉 *LIMERICK*
1. It is a kind of humorous verse written in five
jingling lines.
2. The form seems to have derived “from a re-
frain formerly used, referring to ‘Limerick’ in Ireland.”

👉 *MALAPROPISM*
1. The term is the outcome of a character in one of Sheridan’s plays.
2. The term signifies the wrong use of a word to convey the intended meaning through
impressive languages, e.g.
Please request the doctor to prescribe a destitute
(instead of ‘substitute) for this drug, as it is out of
stock with the chemists of our town.

👉 *MORPHEME*
1. It is a linguistic unit that has meaning
(i) It can be a word
(ii) It can be a part of a word.

👉 *METAPHOR*
1. It is a kind of simile when a comparison is
suggested rather than explicitly stated, such that ‘as’
or ‘like’ is not used in such a case, e.g.
(i) Lala Lajpat Rai was the Lion of Punjab.
(ii) I see a lily on thy face.
2. Mixed and Exaggerated Metaphors
They are multipronged metaphors as under :
(i) We must cool our heels here until our heads
turn into blocks.

(ii) Hawk-eyed as he is, he can see the sun in

the sky even at midnight.
3. Personal Metaphors
When a metaphor refers to an inanimate object,
as if it were living, it is called a “Personal Metaphor”,
e.g.
(i) the happy land
(ii) the cruel wind
(iii) the lazy evening, etc.
4. Sustained or Prolonged Metaphor :
When a series of images are used to illustrate a
central point of resemblance, the result is the em-
ployment of sustained metaphor, e.g.
“The latent tracks, the giddy heights explore
Of those who blindly creep or sightless sore.”
—Pope
5. Confused Metaphors :
These are the metaphors often used by lesser po-
ets who refer to a number of things in just one or two
lines
6. Decayed or Constant Metaphors :
These are metaphors which have lost their sig-
nificance for excessive use, e.g.
(i) to catch a cold
(ii) to stick to one’s point, etc.
7. We may further need some contemplation of
‘metaphor’ since it is the chief device employed by
the modern poets.
8. In a nutshell, we can define a metaphor as an expression of a quality which cannot be literally
applied to the object to which it is attributed, e.g.
“I shall lay my icy hand on him.”

👉 *METRE*
1. It may not be possible or even necessary to describe it here in full detail, but we can have a
cursory look at the following :
1. Monometre : It means a line (or verse) with a
single iamb (foot)
2. Dimetre: It means a line with two iambs.
3. Trimetre: It means a line with three iambs.
4. Tetrametre: It means a line with four iambs.
5. Penta metre: It means a line with five iambs.
6. Hexta metre: It means a line with six iambs.
7. Hepta metre: It means a line with seven iambs.

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*Types of Research:*
☺️ ☺️ ☺️ ☺️

*Q. Which of the following research types aims at solving an immediate problem faced by a
society or an organization?*

A. Fundamental Research

B. Applied Research

C. Experimental Research

D. Exploratory Research

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*Correct Answer:*

*B. Applied Research*

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*Detailed Explanation:*

▪️ Applied Research is a type of research specifically conducted to address and solve real-life,
practical problems. It is goal-oriented and is used when there is a need to make decisions or
take action on a pressing issue within a specific context, such as a business, educational
institution, healthcare system, or society.
▪️ In the context of UGC NET Paper 1, Applied Research is highly relevant to topics in Research
Aptitude, where understanding the purpose and nature of different research types is crucial.

▪️ Applied research does not aim to develop new theories but rather to apply existing theories
and knowledge to solve specific issues. For example, studying the effectiveness of a new
teaching method in a classroom setting is applied research.

▪️ Applied research can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed in nature depending on the problem
being addressed. It is closely tied with policy formulation, organizational development, and
technological innovation.

Let’s understand why the other options are incorrect:

🔹 A. Fundamental Research:
Also called basic or pure research, this type is theory-driven and focuses on gaining deeper
understanding or advancing knowledge without immediate practical application. For example,
exploring the nature of intelligence or the functioning of the human brain.

🔹 C. Experimental Research:
This involves manipulation of variables to study cause-effect relationships. While it can be a
method used in applied research, it is not a type of research that directly addresses societal
problems unless applied in context.

🔹 D. Exploratory Research:
This is preliminary research conducted to explore a problem or situation that is not well defined.
It helps formulate hypotheses or research questions, but does not aim to solve an immediate
problem.

*UNIT – 9: Literary Criticism:*

*A. Classical and Neoclassical Criticism:*

• Plato ***
• Aristotle (Poetics) ***
• Horace **
• Longinus (On the Sublime) **
• Dante *
• Philip Sidney (An Apology for Poetry) ***
• John Dryden (Essay of Dramatic Poesy) ***
• Alexander Pope (Essay on Criticism) **
• Samuel Johnson (Preface to Shakespeare) ***

*B. Romantic and Victorian Criticism:*

• William Wordsworth (Preface to Lyrical Ballads) ***
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Biographia Literaria) ***
• Percy Bysshe Shelley (Defence of Poetry) **
• Matthew Arnold (Function of Criticism at the Present Time; Study of Poetry) ***
• Thomas Carlyle *
• John Ruskin *

*C. Modern Criticism:*

• T. S. Eliot (Tradition and the Individual Talent, Hamlet and His Problems) ***
• I. A. Richards (Practical Criticism, The Four Kinds of Meaning) ***
• F. R. Leavis (The Great Tradition) ***
• Cleanth Brooks (The Heresy of Paraphrase) **
• Northrop Frye (Anatomy of Criticism) ***
• William Empson (Seven Types of Ambiguity) **
• Kenneth Burke *

*D. Russian Formalism and Structuralism:*

• Viktor Shklovsky **
• Roman Jakobson **
• Ferdinand de Saussure ***
• Claude Lévi-Strauss **
• Roland Barthes (Mythologies, The Death of the Author) ***

*E. New Criticism and Beyond:*

• John Crowe Ransom **

• W. K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley (Intentional and Affective Fallacy) **
• Michel Foucault (What is an Author?, Discipline and Punish) ***
• Jacques Derrida (Structure, Sign and Play) ***

*F. Reader-Response & Psychoanalytic Criticism:*

• Stanley Fish ***

• Wolfgang Iser ***
• Norman Holland **
• Sigmund Freud ***
• Jacques Lacan ***

*G. Feminist and Gender Criticism:*

• Virginia Woolf (A Room of One’s Own) ***

• Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex) ***
• Elaine Showalter (Gynocriticism) ***
• Judith Butler ***
• Luce Irigaray **

*H. Marxist and Postcolonial Criticism:*

• Karl Marx ***

• Friedrich Engels **
• Antonio Gramsci ***
• Louis Althusser **
• Raymond Williams ***
• Terry Eagleton ***
• Edward Said (Orientalism) ***
• Homi K. Bhabha ***
• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Can the Subaltern Speak?) ***

*Indian translation works :*

😊
*Dr. Nits Whatsapp on 9428260112 for your queries / guidance / Research Assistance in English
Language and Literature)_Have a Happy Learning*

1. "The Palace of Illusions" by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni – A retelling of the Mahabharata from
Draupadi's perspective, originally in English but drawing from ancient Sanskrit texts.

2. "Gitanjali" by Rabindranath Tagore (Translated by W.B. Yeats) – Tagore’s Bengali poetry

collection, which won him the Nobel Prize, translated into English by W.B. Yeats.

3. "Yuganta: The End of an Epoch" by Irawati Karve (Translated by the author) – Originally
written in Marathi, this analytical work reinterprets characters from the Mahabharata.

4. "Six Acres and a Third" by Fakir Mohan Senapati (Translated by Rabi Shankar Mishra and
others) – A classic Oriya novel, this translation brought Senapati’s pioneering realistic fiction to
English readers.

5. "Godaan" by Munshi Premchand (Translated by Jai Ratan and P. Lal) – Premchand's Hindi
novel, considered one of his finest works, translated to English as The Gift of a Cow.
6. "Bhagavad Gita" by Swami Sivananda (Translation and Commentary) – An English
translation of the Bhagavad Gita with commentary, bringing this seminal philosophical text from
Sanskrit to the global audience.

7. "Parva" by S. L. Bhyrappa (Translated by K. Raghavendra Rao) – A Kannada novel that

reimagines the Mahabharata through modern narrative techniques.

8. "Chemmeen" by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (Translated by Anita Nair) – A Malayalam

classic, the story of a fishing community, which has been widely translated into English and
other languages.

9. "The Sun and Her Flowers" by Rupi Kaur (Translated into various Indian languages) –
Originally in English, Rupi Kaur’s poetry collection has been translated into multiple Indian
languages, reaching a wider audience.

10. "Tamas" by Bhisham Sahni (Translated by the author) – A Hindi novel that offers a
harrowing look at the Partition of India, translated by the author himself into English.

*Some Basic Terms Coined by Writers in Literature*

1. Objective Correlative by [Link]

2. Dissociation of Sensibility by [Link]
3. Willing to Suspension of Disbelief by Coleridge
4. Negative Capability by Keats
5. American Renaissance by F.O Matthiessen
[Link] by Bharata
7. Rasa concept by Bharata
8. Kavya Prakasha by Mamata
9. Dhvanyaloka or Suggestion by Anandvardhana
10. Vakrokti by Kuntaka
11. Riti, Guna, Kavyalankara by Vaman
12. Positivism by August Campte
13. Romantic by Friedrich Schlegel
14. Metaphysical Poets by [Link]
15. Upstart Crow is Robert Green
16. Cultural Materialism by Raymond Williams
17. Imagism by [Link]
18. Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson
19. Horizon of Expectation by [Link]
20. Strategic Essentialism by Gayitri Spivak
21. Utilitarianism by J.S..Mill
22. Incunabula means Books published before 1501
23. Tension by Allen Tate
24. Strong Lined Poetry by [Link]
25. Dictum 'Life Imitates Art' by John Ruskin
26. Theatre of Cruelty by Jerzy
27. Epic Theatre by Bertold Bretch
28. Theatre of Oppressed by Augusto Bal
29. Expressionist Theatre by George Kaiser
30. The Guilded Age by Mark Twain
31. Ambiguity by William Empson
32. Intertextuality by Julia Kristeva
33. Heteroglossia by [Link]
34. Dialogic Imagination by [Link]
35. Sublime by Longinus
36. Carnivalesque by [Link]
37. Jacobian Novel by Garry Kelly
38. Surrealism by Andre Breton
39. Decorum by Horace
40. The wasp of Twickenham by Pope
41. Theory of Avant Grade by Peter Berger
42. Chaucer of Scotland is William Dunbar
43. Poetic Justice by Rhymer
44. TouchStone method by [Link]
45. Pathetic Fallacy by John Ruskin
46. Theory of Population by Malthus
47. Provincialising Europe by Dipesh Chakravarthy
48. Egotistical Sublime is to William Wordsworth
49. Young Juvenile is Thomas Nash
50. Macabre element by John Webster
51. Sprung Rhythm and Curtal Sonnet and Inscape and Instress are by [Link]
52. Life Force by [Link]
53. Light of Asia is Admin Arnold
54. Only Connect by [Link]
55. Sports of Time by W. Wordsworth
56. Orientalism by [Link]
57. Womanism by Alice Walker
58. Third Space by Edward Doha
59. Hybridity by Homi Bhaba
60. Reception aesthetics by Wolfgang User
61. Langue and Parole by Ferdinand Saussure
62. Interlanguage by [Link]
63. Difference and Defferecnce by Derrida
64. Signs by Saussure
65. Stock Responses by [Link]
66. Deep Structure by [Link]
67. Competency and Performance by [Link]
68. Readerly and Writerly Text by [Link]
69. Ironic and Indexical by [Link]
[Link] by Julia Kristeva
72. Flaneur by Walter Benjamin
73. Chora by [Link]
74. Simulacrum or Simulacra by Jean Baurdrillard
75. Subaltern by [Link]
76. Metahistory by Hayden White
77. Polyphony by [Link]
78. Hegemony by Antonio Gramsky
79. Theoretician of Sociability is Malcolm Braburry
80. New Historicism by Greenblatt

*Some Basic Terms Coined by Writers in Literature*

1. Objective Correlative by [Link]

2. Dissociation of Sensibility by [Link]
3. Willing to Suspension of Disbelief by Coleridge
4. Negative Capability by Keats
5. American Renaissance by F.O Matthiessen
[Link] by Bharata
7. Rasa concept by Bharata
8. Kavya Prakasha by Mamata
9. Dhvanyaloka or Suggestion by Anandvardhana
10. Vakrokti by Kuntaka
11. Riti, Guna, Kavyalankara by Vaman
12. Positivism by August Campte
13. Romantic by Friedrich Schlegel
14. Metaphysical Poets by [Link]
15. Upstart Crow is Robert Green
16. Cultural Materialism by Raymond Williams
17. Imagism by [Link]
18. Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson
19. Horizon of Expectation by [Link]
20. Strategic Essentialism by Gayitri Spivak
21. Utilitarianism by J.S..Mill
22. Incunabula means Books published before 1501
23. Tension by Allen Tate
24. Strong Lined Poetry by [Link]
25. Dictum 'Life Imitates Art' by John Ruskin
26. Theatre of Cruelty by Jerzy
27. Epic Theatre by Bertold Bretch
28. Theatre of Oppressed by Augusto Bal
29. Expressionist Theatre by George Kaiser
30. The Guilded Age by Mark Twain
31. Ambiguity by William Empson
32. Intertextuality by Julia Kristeva
33. Heteroglossia by [Link]
34. Dialogic Imagination by [Link]
35. Sublime by Longinus
36. Carnivalesque by [Link]
37. Jacobian Novel by Garry Kelly
38. Surrealism by Andre Breton
39. Decorum by Horace
40. The wasp of Twickenham by Pope
41. Theory of Avant Grade by Peter Berger
42. Chaucer of Scotland is William Dunbar
43. Poetic Justice by Rhymer
44. TouchStone method by [Link]
45. Pathetic Fallacy by John Ruskin
46. Theory of Population by Malthus
47. Provincialising Europe by Dipesh Chakravarthy
48. Egotistical Sublime is to William Wordsworth
49. Young Juvenile is Thomas Nash
50. Macabre element by John Webster

👇👇👇👇👇
1. What word, extended from a more popular term, refers to a fictional
book of between 20,000 and 50,000 words? *Novella*
2. Who wrote the famous 1855 poem The Charge of the Light Brigade? *Lord Alfred Tennyson
(1809-92)*
3. In 1960 the UK publishing ban was lifted on what 1928 book? *Lady Chatterley's Lover (by D
H Lawrence)*
4. In bookmaking how many times would an quarto sheet be folded? *Twice (to create four
leaves)*
5. Who wrote the seminal 1936 self-help book How to Win Friends and Influence People? *Dale
Carnegie*
6. Who in 1450 invented movable type, thus revolutionising printing? *Johannes Gutenberg*
7. Which Polish-born naturalised British novelist's real surname was Korzeniowski? *Joseph
Conrad (1857-1924, full name Jozef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski)*
8. Which short-lived dramatist is regarded as the first great exponent of blank verse?
*Christopher Marlowe (1564-93 - Blank verse traditionally is unrhymed, comprising ten syllables
per line, stressing every second syllable.)*
9. Who wrote the maxim 'Cogito, ergo sum' (I think, therefore I am)? *René Descartes
(1596-1650, French philosopher and mathematician, in his work Discours de la Méthode,
1637.)*
10. Who was the youngest of the three Brontë writing sisters? *Anne Brontë (1820-49 - other
sisters were Emily, 1818-48, and Charlotte, 1816-55, plus a brother, Branwell, 1817-48. The two
oldest sisters, Maria and Elizabeth died in childhood.)*
11. What is the Old English heroic poem, surviving in a single copy dated around the year 1000,
featuring its eponymous 6th century warrior from Geatland in Sweden? *Beowulf*
12. What relatively modern school of philosophy, popular in literature since the mid 1900s,
broadly embodies the notion of individual freedom of choice within a disorded and inexplicable
universe? *Existentialism*
13. What was the pen-name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson? *Lewis Carroll (1832-98)*
14. Who wrote Dr Zhivago? *Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (1890-1960)*
15. What term and type of comedy is derived from the French word for stuffing? *Farce or
farcical (from the French farcir, to stuff, based on analogy between stuffing in cookery and the
insertion of frivolous material into medieval plays.)*
16. What term originally meaning 'storehouse' referred, and still refers, to a periodical of various
content and imaginative writing? Magazine
17. Who wrote the significant scientific book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica,
published in 1687? *Isaac Newton (1642-1727)*
18. What 16th century establishment in London's Bread Street was a notable writers' haunt?
*The Mermaid Tavern*
19. Who wrote the 1845 poem The Pied Piper of Hamelin? *Robert Browning (1812-89)*
20. Which American poet and humanist wrote and continually revised a collection of poems
called Leaves of Grass? *Walt Whitman (1819-92 - the title is apparently a self-effacing pun,
since grass was publishing slang for work of little value, and leaves are pages.)*
21. The period between 1450 and 1600 in European development is known by what term,
initially used by Italian scholars to express the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek
culture? *The Renaissance (literally meaning rebirth)*
22. What is the main dog character called in Norton Juster's 1961 popular
children's/adult-crossover book The Phantom Tollbooth? *Tock*
23. Who detailed his experiences before and during World War I in Memoirs of a Foxhunting
Man, and Memoirs of an Infantry Officer? *Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967)*
24. What significant law relating to literary and artistic works was first introduced in 1709?
*Copyright (prior to which creators had no legal means of protecting their work from being
published or exploited by others)*
25. Who wrote the 1891 book Also Sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spake Zarathustra)? *Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844-1900)*
26. What word, meaning 'measure' in Greek, refers to the rhythm of a line of verse? *Metre (or
meter)*
27. Cheap literature of the 16-18th centuries was known as 'what' books, based on the old word
for the travelling traders who sold them? *Chapbooks (a chapman was a travelling salesman,
from the earlier term cheapman)*
28. What was Samuel Langhorne Clemens' pen-name? *Mark Twain (1835-1910)*
29. Derived from Greek meaning summit or finishing touch, what word refers to the publisher's
logo and historically the publisher's details at the end of the book? *Colophon*
30. Japanese three-line verses called Haiku contain how many syllables? *Seventeen*
31. Stanley Kubrick successfully requested the UK ban of his own film based on what Anthony
Burgess book? *A Clockwork Orange*
32. The ISBN (International Standard Book Number) code was increased to how many digits
from 1 January 2007? *Thirteen*
33. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis asserts that people's perceptions and attitudes are affected
particularly by what: book covers, book price, or words and language? *Words and language
(the theory applies to all media and language, in that the type of words and language read and
used affects how people react to the world)*
34. What is the female term equating to a phallic symbol? *Yonic symbol*
35. James Carker is a villain in which Charles Dickens novel? *Dombey and Son (serialised
1846-8)*
36. What famous 1818 novel had the sub-title 'The Modern Prometheus'? *Frankenstein (by
Mary Shelley)*
37. Who wrote the 1947 book The Fountainhead? *Ayn Rand*
38. By what name is the writer François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778) better known? *Voltaire*
39. Which pioneering American poet and story-teller wrote The Fall of the House of Usher?
*Edgar Allen Poe (1809-49)*
40. According to Matthew 27 in the Bible what prisoner was released by Pontius Pilate instead
of Jesus? *Barabbas*
41. What was the 1920s arts group centred around Leonard and Virginia Woolf and the district
of London which provided the group's name? *The Bloomsbury Group*
42. What Japanese term (meaning 'fold' and 'book') refers to a book construction made using
concertina fold, with writing/printing on one side of the paper? *Orihon*
43. What were the respective family names of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet? *Montague
and Capulet*
44. Who wrote The Power of Positive Thinking in 1953? *Norman Vincent Peale*
45. Around 100AD what type of book construction began to replace scrolls? *Codex (a series of
folios sewn together)*
46. What name for a lyrical work, typically 50-200 lines long, which from the Greek word for
song? *Ode*
47. Who wrote the 1866 book Crime and Punishment? *Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-81)*
48. Who wrote the 1513 guide to leadership (titled in English) The Prince? *Niccolo Machiavelli*
49. William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey are commonly referred to
as the 'what' Poets? *Lake Poets (from around 1800 they lived close to each other in the Lake
District of England)*
50. In bookmaking, a sheet folded three times is called by what name? *Octavo (creating eight
leaves)*
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51. What is the parrot's name in Enid Blyton's 'Adventure' series of books? *Kiki*
52. Who wrote The French Lieutenant's Woman? *John Fowles (1969)*
53. What word, which in Greek means 'with' or 'after', prefixes many literary and language terms
to denote something in a different position? *Meta*
54. "Reader, I married him," appears in the conclusion of what novel? *Jane Eyre (by Charlotte
Bronte, 1847)*
55. Philosopher and writer Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832, is associated with what school of
thought? *Utilitarianism (broadly Utilitarianism argues that society should be organised to
produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people)*
56. What influential American philosopher and author wrote the book 'Walden, or Life in the
Woods'? *Henry David Thoreau (1817-62)*
57. The ancient Greek concept of the 'three unities' advocated that a literary work should use a
single plotline, single location, and what other single aspect? *Time (or real time)*
58. Which statesman won the 1953 Nobel Prize for Literature? *Sir Winston Churchill*
59. Who is the second oldest of the Pevensie children in C S Lewis's The Lion, the Witch and
the Wardrobe? *Susan (bonus points: Peter is the oldest, Edmund is third and Lucy is youngest.
The lion is Aslan. The first edition was published in 1950.)*
60. Who wrote the plays Three Sisters, and The Cherry Orchard? *Anton Pavlovich Chekhov
(1860-1904)*
61. What technical word is given usually to the left-side even-numbered page of a book?
*Verso*
62. Which two writers fought a huge unsuccessful legal action in 2006-7 claiming that Dan
Brown's The Da Vinci Code had plaguarised their work? *Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh*
63. What is the pen-name of novelist Mary Ann Evans (1819-80)? *George Eliot*
64. What technical word is given usually to the right-side odd-numbered page of a book?
*Recto*
65. In what decade was the Oxford English Dictionary first published? *1920s (1928)*
66. What simple term, alternatively called Anglo-Saxon, refers to the English language which
was used from the 5th century Germanic invasions, until (loosely) its fusion with Norman-French
around 12-13th centuries? *Old English*
67. Who wrote Brighton Rock (1938) and Our Man in Havana (1958)? *Graham Greene*
68. Laurens van der Post's prisoner of war experiences, described in his books The Seed and
the Sower (1963) and The Night of the New Moon (1970) inspired what film? *Merry Christmas,
Mr. Lawrence*
69. With which troubled son are parents Laius and Jocasta associated? *Oedipus (The mythical
Greek character unknowingly killed his father King Laius and married his mother Jocasta.
Sigmund Freud's term Oedipus Complex refers to similar feelings supposedly arising in male
infant development.)*
70. Which Russian writer was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970? *Aleksandr
Solzhenitsyn (1918-2008)*
71. The book Eunoia, by Christian Bok, suggests in its title, and features exclusively what, in
turn, in its first five chapters? *The vowels a, e, i, o, u. (Each chapter contains words using only
one vowel type. Bok says Eunoia means 'beautiful thinking'. Eunioa is otherwise a medical term
based on the Greek meaning 'well mind'.)*
72. Which great thinker collaborated with Sigmund Freud to write the 1933 book Why War?
*Albert Einstein*
73. Legal action by J K Rowling and Warner Brothers commenced in 2007 against which
company for its plans to publish a Harry Potter Lexicon? *RDR Books*
74. Who wrote the 1939 book The Big Sleep? *Raymond Chandler*
75. "In my younger and more vulnerable years my father gave me some advice which I've been
turning over in my mind ever since," is the start of which novel? *The Great Gatsby (F Scott
Fitzgerald, 1925)*
76. In the early 1900s a thriller was instead more commonly referred to as what sort of book?
*Shocker (or shilling shocker)*
77. Who wrote the books Les Miserables and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame? *Victor Hugo*
78. In what decade were ISBN numbers introduced to the UK? *1960s (1966)*
79. In 1969, P H Newby's book Something to Answer For was the first winner of what prize?
*Booker Prize (the Man Booker Prize from 2002)*
80. Who established Britain's first printing press in 1476? *William Caxton*
81. The word 'book' is suggested by some etymologists to derive from the ancient practice of
writing on tablets made of what wood? *Beech (Boc was an Old English word for beech wood)*
82. What is the name of the first digital library founded by Michael Hart in 1971? *Project
Gutenberg*
83. French writer Sully Prudhomme was the first winner of what prize in 1901? *Nobel Prize for
Literature*
84. Who wrote Naked Lunch, (also titled The Naked Lunch)?* William Burroughs (1959)*
85. In Shakespeare's King Lear, which two daughters benefit initially from their father's rejection
of the third daughter Cordelia?* Goneril and Regan*
86. What was Christopher Latham Scholes' significant invention of 1868? *Typewriter*
87. Which novel begins "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession
of a good fortune must be in want of a wife..."? *Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen, 1813)*
88. Japanese author and playwrite Yukio Mishima committed what extreme act in 1970 while
campaigning for Japan to restore its nationalistic principles? *Suicide*
89. Which American philosopher, and often-quoted advocate of individualism, published essays
on Self-Reliance, Love, Heroism, Character and Manners in his Collections of 1841 and 1844?
*Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82)*
90. Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, printed in Bruges around 1475 is regarded as the first
book to have been what? *Printed in the English language (Caxton later printed Canterbury
Tales in Westminster in 1476, which is regarded as the first book printed in the English language
in England.)*
91. In what city does Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace begin? *Saint Petersburg (Petrograd
and Leningrad are recent alternative and now obsolete names of this city - the
quizmaster/mistress can decide if these answers are correct..)*
92. Which French writer declined the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964? *Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905-1980 - apparently he declined because he had an aversion to being 'institutionalised',
although the real facts of the matter are elusive.)*
93. What controversial novel begins: "[a person's name], light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin,
My soul," ? *Lolita (by Vladimir Nabokov, 1955)*
94. Jonathan Harker's Journal and Dr Seward's Diary feature in what famous 1897 novel?
*Dracula (by Bram Stoker)*
95. What is the technical name for a fourteen-lined poem in rhymed iambic pentameters?
*Sonnet*
96. "Make then laugh; make them cry; make them wait..." was a personal maxim of which
novelist? *Charles Dickens*
97. What is the land of giants called in Gulliver's Travels? *Brobdingnag*
98. What prolific and highly regarded American author, who became a British subject a year
before his death, wrote The Wings of the Dove; Washington Square, and the Golden Bowl?
*Henry James (1843-1916)*
99. What term for a short, usually witty, poem or saying derives from the Greek words 'write' and
'on'? *Epigram (epi = on, grapheine = write, which evolved into Latin and French to the modern
English word.

Some literary words-

1. *Auto-Biography:* -is the history of one’s life written by one self.
2. *Act:* - is the major division of a drama.
3. *Antithesis:* -is contrast or polarity in meaning.
4. *Allusion:* -is a reference to an idea, place, person or text existing outside the literary work.
5. *Allegory:* - is a literary work that has an implied meaning.
6. *Alliteration:*-the repetition of a consonant in two or more words.
7. *Ballad:* -is a song which tells a story.
8. *Biography:* -is the history of a person’s life by one else.
9. *Blank Verse:* -Verses written in iambic pentameter without any rhyme pattern are called
blank verse.
10. *Comedy:*-is a play written to entertain its audience, ends happily.
11. *Classical:*-means any writing that conforms to the rules and modes of old Greek and Latin
writings.
12. *Canto:*:-is a sub-division of an epic or a narrative poem comparable to a chapter in a
novel.
13. *Chorus:*-is a group of singers who stand alongside the stage in a drama.
14. *Catharsis:*-is emotional release of pity and fear that the tragic incidences in a tragedy
arouse to an audience.
15. *Comic relief:*-a humorous scene in a tragedy to eliminate the tragic effect from audience.
16. *Couplet:*-To lines of the same material length usually found in Shakespearean sonnets.
17. *Catastrophe:*-Catastrophe is the downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy.
18. *Didactic:*-is a literary work which aims at teaching and instructing its readers.
19. *Dirge:*-is a short functional term.
20. *Diction:*-is the selection of words in literary work.
21. *Dialect:*-is the language of particular district; class or a group of people.
22. *Drammatical Monologue:*-In a poem when a single person speaks along with or without an
audience is called drammatical monologue. Example “My last Duchess”-----Br
owning.
23. *Difference between drama and novel:*-A drama is meant to be performed whereas a novel
is meant to be read.
24. *Difference between stanza and paragraph:*-A stanza contains verses whereas a paragraph
contains prosaic lines.
25. *Epic:*-is a long narrative poem composed on a grand scale and is exalted style. Example
“Paradise Lost”-------Milton.
26. *Epilogue:*-is the concluding part of a longer poem or a novel or a drama.
27. *Fable:*-is a brief story illustrating a moral.
28. *Farce:*-A form of low comedy designed to provoke laughter.
29. *Foot:*-A basic unit of meter.
30. *Fiction:*-A fiction is an imaginative narrative in prose e.g.
Lord of the fly—by Golding.
31. *Elegy:*- is a poem mourning to the death of an individual or a lament for a tragic event.
32. *Genre:*-means category or types of literature-epic, ode, ballad etc.
33. *Hyperbole:*-An overstatement or exaggeration.
34. *Image:*-is the mental picture connected with metaphor, smile and symbol.
35. *Limerick:*-is a short poem of a five-line stanza rhyming aaba.
36. *Lyric:*-A lyric is a short poem expressing a simple mood. It is usually personal and musical
e.g. Keats’s odes.
37. *Linguistic:*-is the scientific and systematic study of language.
38. *Melodrama:*-A highly sensational drama with happy ending.
Example ‘The Spanish Tragedy’ –Kyd.
39. *Metaphysical Poetry:*-Meta means beyond and physical is related to body . . . . . . . . .
40. *Mock-epic:*-It is a long satirical poem dealing with a trivial theme. Example: “The rape of
the lock”-Alexander Pope.
41. *Metaphor:*-A metaphor is an implicit comparison between two different things.
42. *Metre:*-The recurrence of similar stress pattern in some lines of a poem.
43. *Novel:*-is a long prose narrative fiction with plot, characters, etc.
44. *Novelette:*-is longer than a short story and shorter than a novel.
45. *Ode:*-is a long narrative poem of varying, line length dealing with serious subject matter.
46. *Objectivity:*-We have objectivity in a literary piece when the author focuses on an object
from broadened point of view.
47. *Octave:*-is the firs part of Italian sonnet.
48. *Oxymoron:*-is apparently a physical contrast which oddly makes sense on a deeper level.
49. *Prologue:*-is the beginning part of a novel or a play or a novel.
50. *Prose:*-Any material that is not written in a regular meter like a poetry.
51. *Prosody:*-Prosody is the mechanics or grammar of verse.
52. *Protagonist:*-Protagonist is the main character in a literary work
53. *Plot:*-The arrangement of incidents is called plot.
54. *Pun:*-A pun is playing with words.
55. *Periods of English literature:*-The Anglo-Saxon, Middle English Renaissance, Restoration,
Neoclassical Romantic,
Victorian, Modern, Post-Modern.
56. *Romanticism:*-was a literary movement. It stands Opposite to reason and focuses on
emotion.
57. *Rhetoric:*-Rhetoric is the art of persuasive argument through writing.
58. *Symbol:*-A symbol is anything that stands for something else.
59. *Sonnet:*-is a lyric poem consisting of fourteen rhymed lines dealing with a lofty theme.
60. *Satire:*-is ridiculing the vices and follies of an individual or a society with a corrective
design. E.g. “The rape of the lock”---Pope.