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Performance of the Single-phase Transformer (depending on the type of load)

The knowledge of the performance of any machine, device, or system is of great

importance due to the economic value it brings, both from the perspective of cost
operation as of the environmental. In general, the performance of a machine, normally indicated
with the Greek letter eta η, it is given by the ratio of output and input powers.

Transformers are also compared and valued according to their efficiency. The efficiency
The performance of a device can be known through the following equation:

n = PSAL / PENT * 100 %

n = PSAL / ( PSAL + PPÉRDIDA ) * 100 %

This equation applies to motors and generators, as well as transformers.

The equivalent circuits of the transformer greatly facilitate efficiency calculations.

There are three types of losses represented in transformers:

Losses in copper.(I 2 ∙ R ) These losses are caused by the resistances in series and the
equivalent circuit.
Hysteresis losses. These losses are caused by the resistor. RN
Losses due to eddy currents. These losses are also caused by the resistor.
RN

Figure 1.1 Transformer model at its primary voltage level

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Figure 1.2 Losses due to Hysteresis Figure 1.3 Laminated core to avoid currents of

Eddy

To calculate the efficiency of a transformer under a given load, only the losses are added.
each resistor is used and the equation is applied:

n = PSAL / ( PSAL + PPÉRDIDA ) * 100 %

Since power is PSAL = VS * IS cosθ, efficiency can be expressed as:

(VS∙IScosθ)
η= ∗100
(PCU+Nucleus+VSIScosθ)

In the particular case of transformers, we are dealing with a machine of

exceptional characteristics: their performance is very high and they require very
under maintenance; all of this due to its condition as a static machine.

In electric machines, as in other cases, it happens that those with higher power are
the most efficient. This can be demonstrated by analyzing how the losses vary and how it does so.
the power of the machine. In effect, both the losses in iron Fe and those in copper Cu
dependent, under equal design and material conditions, on the respective volumes of
iron Fe and copper Cu, that is, from the cube of linear dimensions.

Here too, under equal conditions of design and materials, the strength
The induced electromotive force depends on the section of the core and the current of the section.
conductor; therefore the apparent power is a function of the linear dimensions to the fourth
power.
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So as the dimensions of the machine increase, it grows faster.

its power that its losses and therefore improves its performance. Unfortunately, not everything is
so simple and in high power machines other factors appear that complicate
its operation, for example the way to dissipate the heat produced by losses
to maintain the operating temperature within the limits allowed by the materials
insulators.

Daily efficiency of transformers:

Depending on the application of transformers, they are often used to operate 24

hours per day, even when the load is not continuous during the total operating period. In these
conditions a transformer has two concepts of efficiency, one global for condition of
full load and another for different loads during the day, that is, the so-called daily efficiency. This
daily efficiency is expressed as the ratio of output energy to input energy
during the 24-hour period.

Regulation of the Single-Phase Transformer (depending on the type of load)

The regulation of a transformer is defined as the difference between the secondary voltages in
empty and at full load, measured at terminals, this difference expressed as a percentage of
voltage at full load. For the calculation of the open circuit voltage, consideration must be given to the

power factor of the load.

The load of power transformers varies constantly, with the highest occurrence
variation in the periods of greatest industrial and commercial activity, this causes the voltage
the secondary voltages of transformers vary according to the load and the power factor,
depending on whether it is delayed, ahead, or if it is the unit. Since all electrical equipment,
electronics, motors, lamps are very sensitive to voltage changes that may occur
causing them damage, it is very important to have good voltage regulation, so it is very
It is important to know the characteristics of the construction elements of transformers and lines.
of transmission, as well as its behavior under capacitive, inductive, or resistive load.
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The Voltage Regulation Coefficient or Voltage Regulation (VR) is a quantity that

compare the no-load output voltage (in open circuit) with the output voltage at full load and it is defined
by the equation.

VS: Output Voltage of a transmission line or

Secondary Voltage of a transformer

At the voltage supply level, it is desired to have voltage regulation as small as possible.
possible.

For an ideal transformer, RV = 0%, which indicates that its windings do not present a
resistance and does not require reactive power for its operation. However, the
Real transformers have some resistance in the windings and require power.
reactive to produce its magnetic fields, that is, it has within the series impedances,
then its output voltage varies according to the load even when the input voltage and the
frequency remains constant.

The variation of the voltage in the secondary depends essentially on two variables, of the
current absorbed by the load and its power factor.

To obtain the voltage regulation in a transformer, it is necessary to understand the drops of

tension that occurs in its interior. Let's consider the equivalent circuit of the transformer
simplified: the effects of the excitation branch on the voltage regulation of the transformer
Therefore, only the impedances in series should be taken into account.
The voltage regulation of a transformer depends on both the magnitude of these impedances.
like the phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
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The easiest way to determine the effect of impedance and phase angles of the
circulating intensity in voltage regulation of the transformer is to analyze the diagram
phasorial, a diagram of the phasor voltages and currents of the transformer. In figure 1,
the equivalent circuit of the simplified transformer is observed where the effects of are ignored
the excitation branch and only the impedances in series are considered.

Figure [Link] MODEL OF THE TRANSFORMER, REFERRED TO THE SECONDARY

A phasor diagram is the visual representation of an equation; these can be used to

observe the normal phase angles in the regulation of a transformer. Figure 1.5,
show a phasor diagram of a transformer operating with a lagging power factor
it is observed that Vp/a > Vs for lagging load, that is, a predominantly
inductive, so the voltage regulation must be greater than zero.

Figure 1.5:PHASOR DIAGRAM OF THE TRANSFORMER, POWER FACTOR LAGGING

In figure 1.6, a phasor diagram is shown with a power factor equal to one and the
the secondary voltage is lower compared to the referred primary voltage, so the
Voltage regulation is greater than zero, but less than what it was for a lagging current.
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Figure [Link] DIAGRAM OF THE TRANSFORMER, POWER FACTOR UNIT

If the secondary current is ahead, the secondary voltage can actually be greater than
the referred primary voltage, in this case, the impedance is predominantly capacitive and the
The transformer will have a negative regulation.

Figure [Link] DIAGRAM OF THE TRANSFORMER, LEADING POWER FACTOR

For power transformers greater than 5KVA, the corresponding values of the
voltage drops are

For purely inductive load Vs = 0.96 Vp/a

For purely ohmic load Vs = 0.98 Vp/a

For purely capacitive load Vs = 1.02 Vp/a

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For capacitive power factor, the voltage under load can be greater than the voltage in no-load conditions.
This phenomenon is known as the Ferranti effect and can occur in all cases where the
Electric lines have capacitive loads connected. Inductive loads are de-exciting.
since they cause voltage drops, while capacitive loads are exciting, as
they cause an increase in tension.

Polarity test for single-phase transformers

The polarity test on single-phase transformers is carried out to verify if the

Transformers have additive or subtractive polarity.

Figure 1.8 Polarity test for single-phase transformers

This test is necessary when connecting transformers in parallel.

Two rules are important to avoid short circuits, which can cause explosions.
these transformers.

1st.- Both transformers must have identical voltage values in their windings.
primary, this characteristic of equal voltage values must also be fulfilled in the
secondary windings, these must supply the loads with the same voltage.
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2nd.- both transformers must have identical polarity, both must be subtractive or both must be
additives.

Figure 1.9 Connection of single-phase transformers in parallel with different polarities

One of the tests to verify polarity consists of connecting the transformer as

autotransformer.

1.- connect the primary winding with the secondary.

2.- Feed the primary winding with low alternating voltage.
3.- Measure with a voltmeter the voltage value that exists in each winding and in the connection.
series.

This test indicates which terminals have the same polarity at the same time on the side.
primary and on the secondary side.
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Figure 1.10 Test to determine polarity with subtractive polarity result

This test indicates which terminals have the same polarity at the same time on the side
primary and secondary side. Alternating current generates polarities every cycle in each
terminal of the primary winding and secondary winding of the single-phase transformer. A means
cycle is positive polarity and another half cycle of negative polarity. The characteristic of
polarity is similar to batteries; if we connect them in parallel with inverted polarity, a
short circuit.

Few are the diagrams with dots or crosses that indicate which terminals
they have the same polarity at the same time.

The letters with subscript are a way to identify the type of polarity of transformers.
single-phase industrial
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Figure 1.11 Transformer with subtractive polarity and transformer with additive polarity

In single-phase transformers, the letter H1 is always on the left side in the primary.
H2 on the right side. The marks on the secondary indicate whether it is additive or subtractive. If in the
secondary if we have X1 on the left side and X2 on the right its polarity is subtractive, in
Change if the order is that X1 is to the right corresponds to an additive transformer.

Figure 1.12 Transformer with subtractive polarity

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We will have 2 possibilities for the primary winding to be in phase or out of phase by 180º with the
secondary winding, when it is in phase it is subtractive and out of phase 180º it is additive.

Figure 1.13 Test to determine polarity additive polarity result

For example, in a case 'For pedestal-type single-phase transformers up to 100'
specific KVA
The polarity must be subtractive.

Figure 1.14 Transformer with additive polarity

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The Autotransformer

A autotransformer is aelectric machineof construction and similar characteristics to the

of atransformer, but which, unlike this one, only has adevolvingunique around
a nucleusferromagneticThe said winding must have at least three connection points.
electric; the source oftensionand the load is connected to two of the outlets, while one outlet
(the end of the winding) is a common connection to bothelectric circuits (source and
load). Each tap corresponds to a different voltage of the source (or the load, depending
of the case).

In an autotransformer, the common portion (hence called 'common winding') of the winding
unique is part of both the 'primary' and 'secondary' winding. The remaining portion of
wound is called "series wound" and it provides the voltage difference.
between both circuits, through series addition (hence its name) with the voltage of
common vein.

The transfer of powerbetween two circuits connected to a autotransformer occurs at

through two phenomena: themagnetic coupling (like in a common transformer) and
thegalvanic connection (through the common connection) between the two circuits. For this reason, a
autotransformer results in a more compact (and often more economical) device than a
transformer of the same power and rated voltages. Similarly, a transformer
it increases its capacity to transfer power when connected as an autotransformer. In the
Power supply networks often use three-phase autotransformers.
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Figure 1.15 Autotransformer Circuit

Instrument Transformers.

Measuring devices and protection relays generally cannot withstand high

high tensions or elevated currents, otherwise it would become excessively expensive.
construction. On the other hand, it is advisable to avoid the presence of high tensions in those
devices that will be within reach of people. These are the main reasons for the
use of measuring and protection transformers, through which they can be carried out
voltage and current signals, of a value proportional to much lower than the nominal value, to the
measuring and protection devices. A galvanic separation is also achieved, (between the
high and low voltage magnitudes), of the elements belonging to the control panels,
measurement and protection with the consequent advantages in terms of safety for individuals and of
equipment. As the measurements and the operation of the protections are related,
Ultimately, in the assessment of voltage and current, there are two types available.
fundamentals of measurement and protection transformers

Voltage transformers.
Current transformers.

These transformers are usually constructed with their secondaries, for currents of 5 or 1.
And tensions of 100, 110, 100/3, 110/3V. The current transformers are connected in
series with the line, while the tension ones are connected in parallel, between two phases or between phase
and neutral.

Current Transformers
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They are devices in which the secondary current, under normal operating conditions, is
practically proportional to the primary current, although slightly out of phase. They develop
two types of function: transform the current and isolate the protection and measuring instruments
connected to the high voltage circuits. The primary of the transformer, which consists of very
few turns, is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured and the secondary
it is connected in series with the current coils of the measuring and protection devices that
need to be energized.

The turns of the primary winding are usually one or several, which can in turn be...
divide into two equal parts and connect in series or parallel to change the relationship, and
they cross the magnetic core, which is usually in a closed toroidal shape or can have a certain
between iron, over which the secondary coils are uniformly wound,
thus minimizing the dispersion flow. This wrapping is what takes care of
to supply the current circuits of one or more measuring devices connected in series.
It is also possible for there to be several secondary runoffs in the same one.
transformer, each one on its magnetic circuit, one for measurement and the other for protection. From
this form does not have any influence of one secondary over another. If the device has several circuits
Magnetic ones behave as if they were several different transformers. A circuit can be
use for measurements that require greater precision, and the others can be used for
protection. On the other hand, it is advisable that the differential protections of cables or

power and distance transformers are connected to current transformers

independents.

Current transformers can be measurement, protection, mixed, or combined.

Measurement transformer. Transformers whose function is to measure must reproduce.

faithfully the magnitude and the phase angle of the current. Its precision must be ensured from
a small fraction of nominal current on the order of 10%, up to an excess of current of
order of 20%, on the nominal value.

Protection transformers. The transformers whose function is to protect a circuit,

they are required to maintain their fidelity up to a value of twenty times the magnitude of the current
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nominal, when it comes to large networks with high currents, it may be necessary to require thirty
sometimes the nominal current. In the case of overcurrent relays, only the ratio matters.
transformation, but in other types of relays, such as impedance relays, is required
in addition to the transformation relationship, keep the phase angle error within values
predetermined.

Mixed transformers. In this case, the transformers are designed for a combination
from the two previous cases, a circuit with a high-precision core for the circuits of
measurement and one or two more circuits, with their appropriate cores, for the protection circuits.
Combined transformers. They are devices that house under the same cover a
current transformer and another one for voltage. They are used in outdoor substations
fundamentally to reduce spaces.

Voltage transformers.

A voltage transformer is a device intended for the power supply of appliances.

measurement and/or protection with voltages proportional to those of the network at the point it is at
connected. The primary connects in parallel with the circuit to be controlled and the secondary
connect in parallel with the voltage coils of the different measuring devices and of
protection that needs to be energized. Each voltage transformer will therefore have,
primary terminals that will connect to a pair of phases or to a phase and ground, and terminals
secondary to which those devices will connect. In these devices, the secondary voltage,
under normal operating conditions, it is practically proportional to the voltage
primary, although slightly out of date. They perform two functions: transform the voltage and
isolate the protection and measurement instruments connected to the high voltage circuits. In
this broad definition involves voltage transformers that consist of
two windings made on a magnetic core and the voltage transformers that
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they contain a capacitive divider. We will henceforth refer to the first ones as 'Transformers of
Inductive Tension
transformers are manufactured for indoor or outdoor service, and like those of current, they
They are manufactured with synthetic resin insulations (epoxy) for low or medium stresses of up to 33.
kV, while for high voltages, paper, oil, porcelain, or other insulations are used.
SF6 gas.