Rehabilitation of structures refers to the process of repairing, renovating, or

improving existing buildings, bridges, or other man-made structures that have

deteriorated or become obsolete.

The aim of rehabilitation is to restore the functionality, safety, and usability of the
structure while preserving its historic, cultural, or architectural value.

Rehabilitation can involve a wide range of activities, including repairing or replacing

damaged or outdated structural components, upgrading mechanical, electrical, or
plumbing systems, improving accessibility, enhancing energy efficiency, and updating
interior finishes.

The process typically begins with a thorough assessment of the structure's condition
and an evaluation of its potential for reuse or adaptation.

Rehabilitation is often a more sustainable and cost-effective alternative to demolition

and reconstruction, as it can extend the lifespan of existing structures and reduce the
environmental impact of new construction.

It can also help to maintain the character and identity of historic or culturally significant
buildings and contribute to the revitalization of urban areas.

What do you mean by Retrofitting?

Retrofitting of structures refers to the process of upgrading or modifying existing

buildings, bridges, or other man-made structures to improve their performance
and resilience against various hazards, such as earthquakes, windstorms, floods,
or explosions.

The aim of retrofitting is to strengthen the structure, enhance its functionality, and
reduce the risk of damage or collapse during a natural or man-made disaster.

Retrofitting can involve a variety of techniques and technologies, depending on the

specific hazards and vulnerabilities of the structure.

Common retrofitting measures include adding bracing or reinforcement to the

existing structure, installing seismic dampers or base isolation systems,
upgrading structural connections, improving fire protection or ventilation
systems, and upgrading electrical or mechanical systems.

Retrofitting is an important strategy for improving the safety and resilience of existing
structures, particularly in areas prone to natural disasters or high-risk industries.
Retrofitting can also help to reduce the environmental impact of new construction by
extending the lifespan of existing structures and reducing the need for new materials
and resources

Repair of Structure.

Repairs of structures refer to the process of fixing or restoring damaged or deteriorated

parts of a building, bridge, or other man-made structure to maintain its structural
integrity, functionality, and safety. The purpose of repairs is to address specific issues
that have arisen due to normal wear and tear, accidental damage, or natural disasters.

Repairs can involve a variety of activities, including replacing or repairing damaged or

decayed structural components, fixing or replacing roofing and cladding materials,
repairing plumbing and electrical systems, and repairing or replacing damaged finishes
such as flooring, paint, or wallpaper.

The repair process usually begins with an assessment of the extent and nature of the
damage and an evaluation of the best course of action. Repairs can range from simple
cosmetic fixes to more complex structural repairs, depending on the severity of the
damage and the age and condition of the structure.

Repairs are essential to ensure the continued safety and functionality of a structure, and
to prevent further deterioration or damage. Regular maintenance and timely repairs can
help to extend the lifespan of a building or infrastructure asset, reduce long-term costs,
and ensure the safety and comfort of occupants.

Cause of Deterioration/damage of structures.

Prior to undertaking repair & rehabilitation activities, it is necessary to identify

the reasons and extent of damage through detailed condition assessment of the
structures. Based on the type and extent of damage, strategies for repair &
rehabilitation of the structures need to be developed. The strategies need to
include prevention/protection against corrosion for the expected life of the
structures. These may include application of sealers, corrosion inhibitors,
surface coatings; polymer modified concrete, cathodic protection/prevention,
etc. A life cycle cost analysis is required to be carried out as some of these
techniques may appear to be costly but considering the durability & life
enhancement of the structures that can be achieved by employing the
protection measure, the cost would be more than justified.

We generally think of concrete as a modern building material, yet it is one of

the oldest and most durable building materials. Although the Romans
experimented with bronze reinforcement, reinforced concrete as we know it
today dates from the mid-19th century following the introduction of Portland
cement concrete in 1854. Steel has the advantage of having the tensile strength
that concrete lacks, and is highly compatible in its chemical and physical
characteristics. The matching of thermal expansion coefficients is critical to the
versatility of reinforced concrete.

Durable concrete is defined as concrete fit for the purpose for which it was
intended, under the conditions to which the concrete is expected, and for the
expected life during which the concrete is to remain in service.
Corrosion is one of the major modes of deterioration of concrete structures and
is considered a big threat to the durability of the structures especially for
structures in contact with water/seawater.

Concrete normally provides reinforcing steel with excellent corrosion protection.

The high-alkaline environment in concrete creates a tightly adhering film that
passivates the steel and protects it from corrosion. Because of concrete’s
inherent protective attributes, corrosion of reinforcing steel does not occur in
the majority of concrete elements or structures. Corrosion of steel, however,
can occur if the concrete does not resist the ingress of corrosion-causing
substances, the structure was not properly designed for the service
environment, or the environment is not as anticipated or changes during the
service life of the structure.

Concrete structures located in aggressive environments where high

temperatures and high chloride levels exist in both natural soils and waters are
subject to premature deterioration from corrosion of the reinforcement.
Traditional methods of corrosion protection, such as concrete admixtures and
passive barrier systems, may not be sufficient to provide the level of corrosion
control needed for the intended design life. As a solution to this problem the use
of cathodic protection (or cathodic prevention as it is called) at the time of
construction is proposed. Although cathodic protection has been used as a
rehabilitation method on existing salt-contaminated concrete structures for over
25 years, its application to new reinforced concrete structures is relatively new.

DETERIORATION OF RCC STRUCTURES:

Unexpected cracking of concrete is a frequent cause of complaints. Cracking can

be the result of one or a combination of factors, such as drying shrinkage,
thermal contraction, restraint (external or internal) to
shortening, subgrade settlement, and applied loads. Cracking can be
significantly reduced when the causes are taken into account and preventive
steps are utilized. Deterioration of concrete occurs due to one or more of the
following mechanisms (Table 1):

[Link] Deterioration Mode Typical Appearance

Structural Failure: Actual structural failure, or even

structural cracking is only rarely encountered but it is
1
important to differentiate between cracking from
structural and other causes.

Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks that do not

penetrate much below the surface and are usually a
2 cosmetic problem only. They are barely visible,
except when the concrete is drying after the surface
has been wet.

3 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking: When water

evaporates from the surface of freshly placed
concrete faster than it is replaced by bleed water, the
surface concrete shrinks. Due to the restraint
 provided by the concrete below the drying surface
layer, tensile stresses develop in the weak, stiffening
plastic concrete, resulting in shallow cracks of varying
depth.

Drying Shrinkage: Because almost all concrete is

mixed with more water than is needed to hydrate the
cement, much of the remaining water evaporates,
4 causing the concrete to shrink. Restraint to
shrinkage, provided by the subgrade, reinforcement,
or another part of the structure, causes tensile
stresses to develop in the hardened concrete.

D-cracking is a form of freeze-thaw deterioration

that has been observed in some pavements after
three or more years of service. Due to the natural
accumulation of water in the base and subbase of
5 pavements, the aggregate may eventually become
saturated. Then with freezing and thawing cycles,
cracking of the concrete starts in the saturated
aggregate at the bottom of the slab and progresses
upward until it reaches the wearing surface.

Thermal cracks: Temperature rise (especially

significant in mass concrete) results from the heat of
hydration of cementitious materials. As the interior
concrete increases in temperature and expands, the
6
surface concrete may be cooling and contracting. This
causes tensile stresses that may result in thermal
cracks at the surface if the temperature differential
between the surface and center is too great.

7 Corrosion of Steel: Steel reinforcement is normally

chemically protected from corrosion by the alkaline
nature of the concrete. If this alkalinity is lost
 through carbonation or if chlorides are present which
can break down this immunity, then corrosion can
occur. Obviously, when cover is low, the onset of
corrosion will be sooner.

Alkali Silica Reaction: Alkali-aggregate reaction:

Alkali-aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete
deterioration that occurs when the active mineral
constituents of some aggregates react with the alkali
hydroxides in the concrete. Alkali-aggregate
8 reactivity occurs in two forms—alkali-silica reaction
(ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction
(ACR). Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate
reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or
spalling joints, or displacement of different portions
of a structure.

9 Shrinkable Aggregates: Some, mostly igneous,

aggregates can contain inclusions of weathered
material in the form of clay minerals. These minerals,
in common with the clays encountered in the ground,
swell in the presence of moisture and shrink as they
 dry out. They can cause excessive drying shrinkage
of the concrete and can cause a random crack
pattern not unlike that encountered with ASR

Chemical Attack: Concrete buried in soils or

groundwater containing high levels of sulfate salts,
particularly in the form of sodium, potassium or
magnesium salts, may be subjected to sulfate attack
10 under damp conditions. As a guide, levels of sulfate
above about 4% of cement (expressed as SO ) may
3

indicate the possibility of sulfate attack, provided

sufficient moisture is present. Sulfate attack requires
prolonged exposure to damp conditions.
 Poor Quality Construction: During construction
lack of attention to proper quality control can
produce concrete which may be inferior in both
durability and strength to that assumed by the
11
designer. Particular factors in this respect are
compaction, curing conditions, low cement content,
incorrect aggregate grading, incorrect water cement
ratio and inadequate cover to reinforcement.

12 Patch Accelerated Corrosion – Commonly

referred to as “ring anode corrosion” or “halo effect”,
patch accelerated corrosion is a phenomenon specific
to concrete restoration projects. When repairs are
completed on corrosion-damaged structures, abrupt
changes in the concrete surrounding the reinforcing
steel are created. Typical concrete repair procedures
call for removal of the concrete around the full
circumference of the reinforcing steel within the
repair area, cleaning of corrosion by-products from
the steel, and refilling the cavity with new chloride-
free, high pH concrete. This procedure leaves the
reinforcing steel embedded in adjacent environments
with abruptly different corrosion potentials. This
difference in corrosion potential (voltage) is the
driving force for new corrosion sites to form in the
surrounding contaminated concrete. The evidence
of this activity is the presence of new concrete
spalling adjacent to previously completed patch
 repairs.

Efflorescence: In chemistry, efflorescence (which

means “to flower out” in French) is the loss of water
or a solvent of crystallization from a hydrated or
13 solvated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air.
On porous construction materials it may present a
cosmetic problem only, but can sometimes indicate
serious structural weakness.

CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL:

Whatever the source of deterioration and the mechanism of its development,

corrosion of embedded reinforcement is recognized as the major problem
affecting the durability of concrete structures. Reinforcing steel in good quality
concrete does not corrode even if sufficient moisture and oxygen are available.
This is due to the spontaneous formation of a thin protective oxide film (passive
film) on the steel surface in the highly alkaline pore solution of the concrete.
When sufficient chloride ions (from deicing salts or from sea water) have
penetrated to the reinforcement or when the pH of the pore solution drops to
low values due to carbonation, the protective film is destroyed and the
reinforcing steel is depassivated.
When reinforcement corrodes, the corrosion products generally occupy
considerably more volume than the steel. The magnitude of this increase in
volume varies approximately 7 times the volume of the original material. As a
result, the corrosion products produce an internal stress that destroys the
neighbouring concrete under tensile stress.

Once corrosion is initiated, it is only a matter of time before the expansive

pressures from steel oxidation causes concrete cracking, spalling and
delaminations. If the on-going corrosion activity is not addressed, section loss
of the reinforcing will occur and significant structure repair or replacement may
eventually be required (Fig. 1).

t0 = the time for the environment to penetrate into the concrete to a level
where corrosion starts

t1 = the time for the corrosion rate to increase to significant levels

t2 = the time for cracking to occur, and a subsequent further increase in

corrosion rate

t3 = the time for significant structural distress to be caused

t0 will depend on quality of concrete and corrosive environment present

CORROSION PROCESS
Steel in concrete is normally protected from corrosion by a passive film of iron
oxides on the steel surface resulting from the natural alkaline environment of
the concrete. The passive film is chemically stable in the absence of carbonation
and chloride ions. The ingress of chloride ions (Cl−) to the level of the steel
reinforcing bars destroys the passive film and initiates corrosion. This makes
reinforced concrete structures in coastal areas and/or marine environments
vulnerable to damage by corrosion of steel reinforcement. Reinforced concrete
infrastructures located in cold environments are also susceptible to corrosion
damage due to the use of deicing salts. Carbonation penetrates concrete cover
and destroys the passive film by neutralizing alkalinity of concrete. Once
corrosion is initiated, electrochemical reactions occur, leading to the formation
of expansive corrosion products that create tensile stresses in the concrete
surrounding the corroding steel reinforcing bar. This results in concrete cracking
and spalling, which aggravates the progressive damage, thus affecting the
durability of the structure.

CAUSES OF CORROSION

Following are the two most common contributing factors leading to

reinforcement corrosion:

(i) Localized breakdown of the passive film on the steel by chloride ions called
chloride attack.

(ii) General breakdown of passivity by neutralization of the concrete,

predominantly by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide called carbonation.

CARBONATION

Carbon dioxide, which is present in the air at around 0.3 per cent by volume,
dissolves in water to form a mildly acidic solution. This forms within the pores of
the concrete, here it reacts with the alkaline calcium hydroxide forming
insoluble calcium carbonate. The pH value then drops from more than 12 to
about 8.5.

In the case of carbonation, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO ) reacts with pore
2

water alkali according to the generalized reaction,

Ca(OH) + CO → CaCO + H O
2 2 3 2

It consumes alkalinity and reduces pore water pH to the 8–9 range, where steel
is no longer passive.
The carbonation process moves as a front through the concrete, on reaching the
reinforcing steel, the passive layer decays when the pH value drops below 10.5.
If the carbonated front penetrates sufficiently deeply into the concrete to
intersect with the concrete reinforcement interface, protection is lost and, since
both oxygen and moisture are available, the steel is likely to corrode. The
extent of the advance of the carbonation front depends, to a considerable
extent, on the porosity and permeability of the concrete and on the conditions
of the exposure.

CHLORIDE

The passivity provided by the alkaline conditions can also be destroyed by the
presence of chloride ions, even though a high level of alkalinity remains in the
concrete. The chloride ion can locally de-passivate the metal and promote active
metal dissolution. Chlorides react with the calcium aluminate and calcium
aluminoferrite in the concrete to form insoluble calcium chloroaluminates and
calcium chloroferrites in which the chloride is bound in non-active form.
However, the reaction is never complete and some active soluble chloride
always remains in equilibrium in the aqueous phase in the concrete.

MECHANISM OF CORROSION

The corrosion process that takes place in concrete is electrochemical in nature.

Corrosion will result in the flow of electrons between anodic and cathodic sites
on the rebar. For corrosion to occur, four basic elements are required:

 Anode – site where corrosion occurs and current flows from.

 Cathode – site where no corrosion occurs and current flows to.
 Electrolyte – a medium capable of conducting electric current by ionic current
flow (i.e. soil, water or concrete).
 Metallic Path – connection between the anode and cathode, which allows
current return and completes the circuit.
The anode is the location on a steel reinforcing bar where corrosion is taking
place and metal is being lost. At the anode, iron atoms lose electrons to become
iron ions (Fe ). This oxidation reaction is referred to as the anodic reaction. The
+2

cathode is the location on a steel reinforcing bar where metal is not consumed.
At the cathode, oxygen in the presence of water, accepts electrons to form
hydroxyl ions (OH ). This reduction reaction is referred to as the cathodic
–

reaction. The electrolyte is the medium that facilitates the flow of electrons
(electric current) between the anode and the cathode. Concrete, when exposed
to wet and dry cycles, has sufficient conductivity to serve as an electrolyte. Fig
2. illustrates the corrosion cell for a steel reinforcing bar embedded in concrete
where the anode and the cathode are on the same steel reinforcing bar.

Fig. 2: Corrosion Process on reinforcement

The corrosion of steel in concrete in the presence of oxygen but without
chlorides takes place in several steps:

At the anode, iron is oxidized to the ferrous state and releases electrons

Fe → Fe + 2e2+ –

These electrons migrate to the cathode where they combine with water and
oxygen to form hydroxyl ions

2e + H O + 1/2O
–
2 2 → 2OH
–

Fe + 2OH → Fe(OH)
2+ –
2

In the presence of water and oxygen, the ferrous hydroxide is further oxidized
to form Fe O2 3
4Fe(OH) + O + H O → 4Fe(OH)
2 2 2 3

2Fe(OH) → Fe O .2H O
3 2 3 2

The anodic and cathodic reactions described above take place at the anode and
the cathode, respectively. Currents flow through concrete from the cathode to
anode by ion flow and through the reinforcing steel from the anode to the
cathode by electron flow.

Two types of corrosion cells develop within concrete: microcells and macrocells.
When a microcell develops within concrete, the anode is very close to the
cathode on the same reinforcing bar as shown in figure. Carbonation-induced
corrosion usually occurs on a microcell. When a macrocell develops, the anode
and cathode are often well separated as shown in figure. Chloride-induced
corrosion is prone to development of macrocells. The hydroxyl ions combine
with the ferrous ions to form ferrous hydroxide (Fig. 3 & 4).
Fig. 3 & 4: Micro and Macrocells
When carbon dioxide (CO ) from the atmosphere penetrates concrete and
2

dissolves in the pore solution, carbonic acid is formed. This acid reacts with the
alkali in the cement to form carbonates and to lower the pH of the concrete.
When the alkalinity reaches a low enough level, the steel reinforcing bar
becomes depassivated and in the presence of sufficient water and oxygen,
corrosion is initiated and propagated.

The concentration of chlorides in concrete is not uniform due to the

heterogeneity of the concrete. The chlorides enter the concrete from the
exposed surface. These differences in chloride concentrations establish anodes
and cathodes on individual steel bars and result in the formation of micro cells.

The corrosion of steel in concrete in the presence of chlorides, but with no

oxygen (at the anode), takes place in several steps:

At the anode, iron reacts with chloride ions to form an intermediate soluble
ironchloride complex
Fe + 2Cl –
→ (Fe + 2Cl ) + 2e
2+ – –

When the iron–chloride complex diffuses away from the bar to an area with
higher pH and concentration of oxygen, it reacts with hydroxyl ions to form
Fe(OH) . This complex reacts with water to form ferrous hydroxide.
2

(Fe + 2Cl ) + 2H O + 2e → Fe(OH) + 2H + 2Cl

2+ –
2
–
2
+ –

The hydrogen ions then combine with electrons to form hydrogen gas

2H + 2e → H2
+ –

As in the case of corrosion of steel without chlorides, the ferrous hydroxide, in

the presence of water and oxygen, is further oxidized to form Fe O2 3

4Fe(OH) + O + H O → 4Fe(OH)
2 2 2 3

2Fe(OH) → Fe O .2H O
3 2 3 2

The corrosion products resulting from the corrosion of steel reinforcing bars
occupy a volume five to ten times that of the original steel. This increase in
volume induces stresses in the concrete that result in cracks, delamination and
spalls. If left untreated, the process continues which further accelerates the
corrosion process by providing an easy pathway for water and chlorides to reach
the steel until the concrete becomes structurally unsound as shown in Fig 5 &
6.

Fig. 5
The minimum chloride ion concentration needed to initiate corrosion of steel
reinforcing bars is also called the chloride threshold. Although the concept of
chloride threshold is generally accepted, there is agreement on what the
threshold value is. Several factors influence the chloride threshold value (Fig. 7
& Table 2): the composition of the concrete (resistivity), the amount of
moisture present, and the atmospheric conditions (temperature and humidity).
The threshold concentration depends on the pH level and the concentration of
oxygen. Regardless of what concentration of chloride ions is needed to initiate
corrosion, an increase in the chloride ion concentration increases the probability
that corrosion of steel reinforcing bars will occur.
Effects of Rebar Corrosion:

There are several factors that that affect the corrosion process. The corrosion
process leads to several coupled effects such as:

1. Longitudinal cracking of concrete cover due to expansive corrosion products.

2. Steel cross section reduction.

3. The degradation of steel–concrete bond.

As a result of these effects, the service life and the load-bearing capacity of
reinforced concrete elements are considerably reduced. The corrosion rate is a
key element in determining the time from corrosion initiation to corrosion
cracking, which is usually used to predict the functional service life of a
corroded RC structure. After corrosion initiation, the corrosion rate depends
mainly on the availability of oxygen and moisture at the cathode and on the
concrete resistivity, which is mainly affected by the internal moisture content
and concrete porosity. Cooling towers host a perfect environment for the
corrosion of embedded steel, and this deterioration affects several elements in
the structure. Because products formed when steel corrodes occupy more space
than the parent material, they exert significant tensile stresses on the concrete,
causing unrestrained portions of the concrete mass to crack (Fig. 8). Cracking
allows the further ingress of elements (such as chlorides and water) that fuel
the corrosion process. As corrosion continues, delamination-a separation within
the concrete that usually originates at the level of the reinforcement-occurs.
Furthermore, spalling can occur along the deterioration curve.
Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion Inhibitors are one of a variety of techniques that can be employed in

an effort to suppress and control the rate of steel corrosion in concrete
structures particularly in the case of hidden or latent damage, although their
long term effectiveness in reinforced concrete is still open to debate and the
subject of detailed research. Due to the large number of commercially available
concrete corrosion inhibitors, which vary widely in their respective formulations
and inhibitive properties, categorisation is difficult. However, it is possible to
divide concrete corrosion inhibitors into two generic categories.

 Concrete admixture inhibitors – used as a preventative

[Link] applied and drilled-in inhibitors – used as a curative
or preventative measure.
These two generic categories can be further subdivided into anodic, cathodic
and ambiodic (mixed) inhibitors depending upon the formulation of the
inhibitor.

Surface Treatments:

Three generic types of Surface Treatment are available for the decoration and
protection of concrete surfaces, designed to control chemical ingress as well as
moisture movement. They are described as follows:

 Pore-liners – these are hydrophobic impregnation treatments such as

silicone impregnants, which line the pores of concrete. They repel water and
therefore prevent it from entering the concrete, but continue to allow water
vapour to escape.

 Pore blockers – these are materials that partially or completely block the in
concrete. They may accomplish this by either reacting with the concrete to
produce pore-blocking products or by physically blocking the pores.

 Film-formers – these are coating systems based on either organic resins

such as styrene butadiene and acrylic copolymers or inorganic resins such as
potassium silicate, which form a protective/decorative film on the surface of
the concrete.
Coatings may be endowed with special properties, such as the ability to bridge
moving cracks whilst maintaining film integrity.
Using Cathodic Protection to Control Corrosion of Concrete
Infrastructure in Marine Environments:

Traditional methods of repairs, such as removing deteriorated concrete and

replacing with concrete repair mortar, may not be sufficient to slow down the
corrosion process to a point where the deterioration rate of concrete is
significant. Structures in marine environment that are repaired with
conventional methods may develop concrete damage in a short time frame due
to the aggressive nature of on-going corrosion process.

Over the last fifteen years, cathodic protection has increasingly been used to
provide cost effective corrosion control for reinforced concrete structures in
marine environments. Both galvanic & Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
systems have been used for this purpose.