Science and Technology

Contents
1. Life Processes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Diversity in living Organisms......................................................................................................................................... 9
3. Control and Coordination .............................................................................................................................................. 11

1. Life Processes

 Life processes – The processes that are necessary for an organism to stay alive. Eg.
Nutrition,respiration, etc.
 Criteria of life- (i) Growth (ii) Movement
 Nutrition- The process in which an organism takes in food, utilizes it to get energy, for
growth, repair and maintenance, etc. and excretes the waste materials from the body

Types of nutrition
1. Autotrophic nutrition (Auto =self: trophos = nourishment) E.g. Plants, Algae, blue green bacteria.
 Process – Photosynthesis (Photo=light; Synthesis= to combine)
 Raw materials- (i) Carbon dioxide (ii)Water
 Equation
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 6𝑂2
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙 6 12 6

 Energy conversion- Light/Solar energy to Chemical energy

 Role off Chlorophyll- To trap the sun‘s energy for photosynthesis

Factors for Autotrophic nutrition -

(i) Carbon dioxide
(ii) Water
(iii) Light
(iv) Temperature

Events/ Steps of photosynthesis-

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy & Splitting of water molecule into Hydrogen &
oxygen

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(iii) Reduction of Carbon dioxide to Carbohydrate

Gaseous exchange-
(i) Gas used- Carbon dioxide
(ii) By product - Oxygen

Source of raw materials-

(i) Carbon dioxide –Land plants- Air, Aquatic plants- Water
(ii) Water & Minerals - Soil
2. Heterotrophic nutrition (Hetero =others: trophos =ourishment) Eg. Animals, plants lacking
chlorophyll like fungi.
(a) Saprophytic nutrition: Organisms feeds on dead decaying plants or animals material. E.g. Fungi,
Bacteria
(b) Parasitic nutrition: Organisms obtain food from the body of another living (host)
 Endoparasite : Parasite lives inside the body of the host e.g. tapeworm, roundworm.
 Exoparasite : Parasite lives on the body of the host. E.g. lice, leech.

Note- The parasite benefits while the host is usually harmed e.g. Cuscutta-plant parasite (amar bel),
plasmodium (malarial parasite).
(c) Holozoic nutrition: Organism (mostly animals) take in whole food and then digest it into smaller
particles with enzyme. [Link], Paramoecium. Animals, human beings.

Steps in Holozoic nutrition

(i) Ingestion: taking in of food.
(ii) Digestion: breaking down of complex food into simpler, absorbable form.
(ii) Digestion: breaking down of complex food into simpler, absorbable form.
(iii Assimilation: Utilization of digested food from the body.
(iv)Egestion: Removing undigested food from the body

Nutrition in human beings

♦ Alimentary canalMouth Oesophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine
♦ Important gland/juices
(Refer to figure 6.6 page no.97 of N.C.E.R.T Text book)
Organ Gland Enzyme/Juice Function
Salivary Salivary
Mouth Converts starch into sugar
glands Amylase
(i) Gastric juice:
Gastric (a) Kills harmful bacteria that enter with the food.
Stomach Hydrochloric
glands (b) Makes the medium alkaline for the action of Pepsin
acid
(ii) Pepsin Digests proteins

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Organ Gland Enzyme/Juice Function
Protects the inner lining of the stomach from the
(iii) Mucus
corrosive action of Hydrochloric acid.
Small (a) Makes the medium acidic for the action of
1) Liver (i) Bile juice
intestine Pancreatic enzymes.
(b) Breaks down large fat molecules into smaller
globules so that enzymes can act upon them.
2) Pancreas (i)Pancreatic
juice:
Converts carbohydrates to glucose
 Amylase

 Trypsin → Converts proteins to amino acids

 Lipase Converts fats into fatty acids & glycerol

Aerobic espiration Anaerobic respiration

1. Takes place in presence of 1. Takes place in absence of Oxygen.
Oxygen. 2. End products- Ethanol & Carbon dioxide
2. End products- Carbon dioxide 3. Less energy is released.
& Water 4. Takes place in only in Cytoplasm.
3. More energy is released. 5. Incomplete oxidation of glucose takes place.
4. Takes place in Cytoplasm & 6. It occurs in certain bacteria, yeast & certain tissues of higher
Mitochondria organisms. E.g. In humans during vigorous exercise, when the
5. Complete oxidation of glucose demand for Oxygen is more than the supply, muscle cells
takes place. respire anaerobically for some time.
6. It occurs in most organisms. 7. Equation- In Yeast- Glucose→ Pyruvate→ Ethanol + H2O +
7. Equation- Glucose→ Energy
Pyruvate→ CO2 + H2O + Energy In muscle cells - Glucose→
Pyruvate→ Lactic acid + Energy

Some common features of Respiratory organs-

(i) Large surface area- for greater rate of diffusion of respiratory gases.
(ii) Thin permeable walls – to ensure easy diffusion & exchange of gases.
(iii) Extensive blood supply- Respiratory organs are richly supplied with blood vessels for quick
transport of gases.

Gaseous exchange in plants-

♦ Process – Diffusion
♦ Direction of diffusion depends on-
(i) Environmental conditions
(ii) Requirement of the plant.

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♦ Day time- Carbon dioxide given out during respiration is used for [Link]
only Oxygen is released, which is a major activity during the day.
♦ Night time – Only respiration takes place. Therefore only Carbon dioxide is released, which is a
major activity during the night.

Gaseous exchange in animals-

♦ Terrestrial animals- take Oxygen from the atmosphere.
♦ Aquatic animals- take Oxygen dissolved in water. (Oxygen content is low in water, therefore
they breathe faster.

Human Respiratory system

External nostrils → Nasal cavity → Trachea→ Bronchi → Bronchioles →Alveoli
 Rings of cartilage present in the throat ensure that the trachea (air passage) does not collapse
when there is less air in it.
♦ Lungs –
(i) Present in the thoracic cavity.
(ii) They are spongy, elastic bags consisting of Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli
Refer to figure 6.9 page no. 104 of N.C.E.R.T Text book)

Respiration occurs in two phaseso

(i) External-Breathing, which is a mechanical process.
(ii) Internal - Cellular respiration

Mechanism of breathing – It includes :

(i)Inhalation
(ii) Exhalation
Exchange of gases-
♦ Unicellular organisms- By Diffusion
♦ Animals-
(i) As the body size is large, diffusion alone is not enough.
(ii) Respiratory pigments also required.
(iii) Respiratory pigment in human beings is Haemoglobin, which is present in red blood corpuscles.
(iv) It has very high affinity for Oxygen.
(iv) Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than Oxygen, so it Gets dissolves in blood and is thus
transported.
v Transportation

Transportation in human beings-

♦ Blood-
(i) It is a fluid connective tissue.
(ii) Components-

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(1) Fluid medium- Plasma (2) Red blood corpuscles (3) White blood corpuscles (4) Platelets
suspended in plasma
(iii) Plasma transports food, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogenous wastes, etc.

♦ Functions of blood-
(i) Transport of respiratory gases.
(ii) Transport of nutrients.
(iii) Transport of waste products.
(iv) Defence against infection

♦ Blood vessels- (i) Arteries (ii) Veins (iii) Capillaries

Arteries Veins
1. Thick walled. 1. Thin walled.
2. Deep seated. 2. Superficial.
3. Carry blood away from the heart. 3. Carry blood to the heart.
4. Carry Oxygenated blood. 4. Carry Deoxygena
5. Valves absent. 5. Valves present

♦ Heart-
(Refer to figure 6.10 page no. 106 of N.C.E.R.T Text book)
(i) It is a muscular organ, which works as a pump in the circulatory system.
(ii) It is the size of our fist.
(iii) It has two sides, which are separated by a partition so that the oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood do not get mixed up.
(iv) It has four chambers-
Two upper chambers called Atria.
Two lower chambers called Ventricles.

Working of heart- Left side-

(i) Left atrium relaxes & the Oxygenated blood enters it from the lungs through the pulmonary
vein.
(ii) Left atrium contracts & the blood enters the left ventricle through the valve.
(iii) Left Ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped into the
largest artery ‗Aorta‘ and is carried to all parts of the body.

Working of heart-Right side-

(i) Right atrium relaxes & the deoxygenated blood from the body enters it through superior and
inferior Vena cava.
(ii) Right atrium contracts & the blood enters the right Ventricle through the valve.
(iii) Right Ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped into the Pulmonary artery and is carried to
lungs.

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♦ Valves- Unidirectional to prevent the backward flow of blood.
♦ Pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries Oxygenated blood.
♦ Aorta is the only artery that carries Deoxygenated blood.
♦ Double circulation in man- because the blood passes through the heart twice in one complete
cycle of the circulation.

Capillaries-
(i) Form the connection between arteries & veins.
(ii) Walls are one cell thick only for easy exchange of blood.
♦ Platelets- Plug the leaks of arteries and veins by clotting the blood.
♦ Lymph- Extracellular fluid similar to plasma but colourless with lesser protein.

Function of lymph-
(i) Transportation of digested & absorbed fats from the small intestine.
(ii) Drains excess fluid from the intercellular spaces back in the blood.
♦ Higher animals- E.g., birds, mammals.
(i)Oxygenated blood & Deoxygenated blood are completely separate for efficient Oxygen supply.
(ii)This is to fulfil higher energy needs and to maintain body temperature (warm blooded animals).
♦ Amphibians & reptiles- have 3 chambered heat where little mixing of Oxygenated blood &
Deoxygenated blood takes place. Therefore their body temperature varies with the temperature of
the environment. (cold blooded animals)

Transportation in plants-
♦ Plants need less energy needs- because they do not move and therefore have a slow
transport system

Transport of water-
(i) Takes place by xylem tissue present in roots, stem, leaves and is therefore interconnected.
(ii) Root cells take up ions from the soil, which creates a concentration difference between root and
soil. Column of water therefore rises upwards.
♦ In very tall plants- transpiration creates a suction pressure, which pulls the water upwards.
♦ Importance of transpiration-
(i) Helps in upward movement of water in plants.
(ii) It regulates the temperature in plants.

Transport of food-
(i) Takes place by phloem tissue.
(ii) Movement of prepared food in plants is called translocation.
➣ Excretion- The biological process of removal of harmful metabolic wastes in living organisms.
➣ Excretion in human beings-

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(Refer to figure 6.13 page no. 110 of N.C.E.R.T Text book)

Organs of excretory system-

(i) Kidneys (iii) Urinary bladder
(ii) Ureters (iv) Urethra

Kidneys-
(i) Two in number
(ii) Bean shaped
(iii) Present in abdomen on either side of the backbone
(iv) Basic unit is nephron.
a) Glomerulus- Group of capillaries (cluster) present in Bowman‘s capsule to receive blood from
renal artery and filters it.
b) Bowman‘s capsule- Cup shaped structure, which contains glomerulus.
c) Convoluted tubule- is long and reabsorbs vital nutrients like glucose, amino acids, salts, urea and
water.

Note-Vital functions of kidneys-

(a) Filtration & removal of Nitrogenous wastes
(b) Reabsorption of vital nutrients
♦ Ureters- Transport the urine formed in the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
♦ Urinary bladder- Muscular bag like structure to store urine.
♦ Urethra- Helps in removal of urine when the Urinary bladder is full.
♦ Artificial kidney- Principle: Dialysis

Excretion in plants-
♦ Gaseous wastes- CO2 in respiration & O2 in photosynthesis are removed by the process of
diffusion.
♦ Excess water- is removed by transpiration.
♦ Other wastes-
(i) Stored in cellular vacuoles or in leaves, which fall off or as gums, resins, etc. in old xylem.
(ii) Excreted in soil.

Important diagrams
1. Open & close stomata
2. Steps of nutrition in Amoeba
3. Alimentary canal of human beings/ Digestive system of human beings
4. Respiratory system of human beings
5. Structure of heart.
6. Excretory system of human beings
7. Structure of nephron

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Important activities
1. To prove that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
2. To prove that Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
3. To prove that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
4. To prove that product of fermentation is Carbon dioxide.
5. To prove that leaves lose water by transpiration.
6. To study the action of salivary amylase on starch.
7. To demonstrate that Carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air.
8. To demonstrate the process of transpiration in plants.

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2. Diversity in living Organisms

1. The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the same species is known
as reproduction.

2. Asexual Reproduction: Modes of sexual reproduction used are binary fission, multiple
fission, Budding, spore formation, regeneration, vegetative propagation, tissue culture,
fragmentation.

3. Sexual Reproduction: In sexual reproduction, a male gamete (germ cells) fuses with a female
gamete to form a new cell called 'zygote'. This zygote then grows and develops into a new
organism in due course of time.
When male gamete and female gamete fuse, they form a zygote and the process is known as
fertilization.
Fertilization is of two types:- External fertilization and Internal fertilization.

4. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

Flower is meant essentially for sexual reproduction.
 Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred from the anther to stigma
of the carpel.
 It is of two types self pollination and cross-pollination.
 In the fertilization process primary endospermic nucleus is formed.
 After the fertilization process, ovary develops into the fruit whereas ovules into the seed.

5. Reproduction in Human Being: The sex organ in males are testes and ova in females.
 Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vasdeferens, a pair of epididymis, a pair
of ejaculatory duct, urethra, pairs of accessory gland.
 Female reproductive part consist of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tube, uterus, vagina,
external genitalia, mammary glands and accessory glands.
 Ovary produces the female gametes (eggs or ova) and female sex hormone (estrogen).
 If sperms are present, fertilization of ovum takes place in the upper end of the fallopian
tube.
 Bleeding accompanied by discharge of soft tissue lining the reproductive tract is menstrual
flow. It last for 3-5 days.
 Secretory phase lasts for 12-14 days.
 Fertilization process occurs in fallopian tube. In this process zygote is formed.
 In this process umbilical cord is produced which is attached to foetus. During this process
two hormones are produced which are estrogen and progesterone.
 Progesterone stops mensturation and prevents ovulation. The placenta protects the body
against diseases.

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 Due to contraction of uterine muscles young one is expelled and the phenomenon is called
parturition.
 If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every
month, the uterus also prepares it self every month to recieve a fertilized egg.
 After the age of 45-50 years menses stop and process is called menopause.
 Fertility control can be done chemically, mechanically or surgically.

6. Reproductive Health Barrier methods

o (i) Mechanical barrier method: They prevent contraception by preventing either
sperms from entering uterus or preventing implantation if fertilization has occurred.
 The instruments are condom, cercival cap, diaphragm & ICDU method.
o (ii) Hormonal method: They are used by women for suppressing the production of
ovum . i.e., oral pills, Implants morning after pills.
o (iii) Chemical contraception: They are creams, jellies and foaming tables which are
placed in vagina for killing the sperms at the time of coitus.
o (iv) Surgical techniques:
 (a) Vasectomy: The two vasa deferential of the male are blocked by cutting a
small piece of tying the rest. This prevents the passage of sperms from testes to
semen.
 (b) Tubectomy: A portion of both the fallopian tubes is excised to ligated to
block the passage of ovum.
7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
 It is a group of infections caused by different types of pathogens that are transmitted by
sexual contact between a healthy person and an infected person.
 The sexually transmitted diseases are also called venereal diseases (VDs). Some 30 different
types of STDs are known.
 For example: Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Trichomonas, Genital warts, AIDS

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3. Control and Coordination

Animals- Nervous System:

 Nervous system is the organ system present in the animals to control and coordinate different
 activities of the body. Nervous system comprises of the brain, the spinal cord, and a huge
network of nerves that are spread throughout the body.
 The nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving and processing messages in the
form of chemical signals called as impulses.
 Nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or neurons. It is specialized
for conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another. A
neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system. Each neuron consists of three parts, namely,
the cell body or cyton, branched projections called the dendrites, and the long process from
the cell body, called the axon.
 Synapse is a gap between two neurons.
 Nerves are thread like structures emerging out of the brain and spinal cord. Nerves branch
out to all parts of the body and are responsible of carrying messages in the body.

Types of nerve cells or neurons:

1. Sensory nerves send messages from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord.
2. Motor nerves carry messages back from the brain or spinal cord to all the muscles and
glands in the body.
3. Interneuron or relay neuron connects neuron within specific regions of the central nervous
system. These are neither motor nor sensory.

What happens in reflex actions?

Reflex action: A reflex action, differently known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly
instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. Reflex is an action generated by the body in
response to the environment.
The process of detecting signal or the input and responding to it by an output action might be
completed quickly.
Such a connection is commonly called a reflex arc. Reflex arcs are formed in the spinal cord itself;
although the information input goes on to reach the brain. In higher animals, most sensory neurons
do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. Reflex arc continue to be more
efficient for quick response.

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Human brain:

Types of nervous system

 The nervous system is divided into two systems – the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
 Central nervous system: It includes the brain and the spinal cord. It receives information
from the body and sends out instructions to particular organs. The brain has three such major
parts or regions namely the fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.
 The forebrain is the main thinking part of the brain. It consists of the cerebrum and
diencephalon. The cerebrum is the seat of memory and intelligence, and of sensory centres
like hearing, smell and sight. The diencephalon is the seat for pressure and pain.
 The midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain and controls the reflexes for sight and
hearing.
 The hindbrain consists of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. The cerebellum coordinates
muscular activities and maintains balance and posture. The medulla controls involuntary
activities like blood pressure, salivation, vomiting and heart beat.
 The spinal cord extends from the medulla of the brain through the whole length of the
vertebral column and is protected by the vertebral column or backbone.
 Peripheral nervous system: It consists of the cranial and spinal nerves arises from the brain
and spinal cord respectively.

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How are the tissues protected?

Human brain is protected by the thick bones of the skull and a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid which
provides further shock absorption.

How does the nervous tissue cause action?

When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle the muscle fibre must move. The muscle cells will move
by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have special proteins that change both
their shape and their arrangement in the cell in response to nervous electrical impulses. When this
happens new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle cells a shorter form.

Coordination in plants:
All living things respond to environmental stimuli. Plants also respond to stimuli with the help of
chemical compounds secreted by the cells. Plants being living organisms, exhibit some movements.
Plants show two different types of movement- one dependent on growth and the other independent
of growth.
The plants also use electrical chemical means to convey this information from cell to cell but there
is no specialized tissue in plants for the conduction of information. Plants respond to stimuli slowly
by growing in a particular direction. Because this growth is directional it appears as if the plant is
moving.

Directional movements: These are also called as tropic movements. These movements can be either
towards the stimulus or away from it.
 Positive phototropism is seen in shoots which respond by bending towards light. Negative
geotropism is seen in shoots by growing away from the ground.
 Roots bend away from light exhibiting negative phototropism. They grow towards the
ground exhibiting positive geotropism.

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 Hydrotropism is a growth response in which the direction is determined by the stimuli of
water.
 Chemotropism is a growth movement of a plant part in response to chemical stimulus. e.g.
 Growth of pollen tubes towards ovules.
 Hormones are the chemical compounds released by stimulated cells. Hormones diffuse all
around the cell. They are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse
to the area of action. Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.
 Different hormones secreted by the plant are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid.
 Auxins are the hormones synthesised at the tip of the stem. These help the plant in growth
by cell elongation. Auxin induces shoot apical dominance.
 Gibberellins are hormones that help in the growth of the stem, seed germination, bolting, and
flowering.
 Cytokinins are hormones present in the areas of rapid cell division, such as fruits and seeds.
 They also promote the opening of the stomata.
 Abscisic acid is a hormone that inhibits the growth in various parts. It is also responsible for
the closure of stomata. Its effects include wilting of leaves.

Hormones in Animals:
Endocrine system is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances called
as hormones. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.
Hormones are minute, chemical messengers thrown into blood to act on target organs.

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Endocrine glands
Different types of endocrine glands present in our body are the pituitary gland, the pineal gland,
the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the thymus, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the
testes and the ovary.

The adrenal glands:

 These are located above the kidneys.
 Two regions of the adrenal gland are adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
 Adrenal cortex secretes the hormones like cortisol, aldosterone and androgens.
 Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones like adrenaline and noradrenaline. Adrenaline is also
called the “hormone of fight or flight,” or the emergency hormone. It prepares the body to
face an emergency condition of physical stress, like danger, anger and excitement.

The thyroid gland:

• It is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx.
• It is the one of the largest endocrine glands.
• The principal hormones produced by this gland are triiodothyronine and thyroxine.
• Thyroxine is a hormone that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in
the body. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin. Deficiency of iodine in food causes
goiter. One of the symptoms in this disease is a swollen neck.

The pituitary gland:

 It is located at the base of the brain.
 It is considered to be master gland as it secretes many hormones to regulate the organs as
well as the other glands.
 Different hormones secreted by this gland include Growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH,
 MSH, Vasopressin and Oxytocin. Growth hormone regulates growth and development of
the body. If there is a deficiency of this hormone in childhood, it leads to dwarfism. Excess
secretion of this hormone leads to gigantism.

Gonads:
Two types of gonads present in human beings are female gonads and male gonads.
Female gonads
• A pair of ovaries forms the gonads in female.
• Ovaries are the female sex organs that lie one on either side of the abdominal cavity. Ovaries
produce two hormones, namely, oestrogen and progesterone.
• Oestrogen controls the changes that occur during puberty, like feminine voice, soft skin and
development in mammary glands.
• Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle, and helps in the
maintenance of pregnancy.

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Male gonads
• A pair of testes forms the gonads in males.
• A pair of testes is the male sex organ located in the scrotum, which is outside the abdomen
• Testes produce the hormone testosterone.
• Testosterone controls the changes, which occur during puberty, like deeper voice,
development of penis, facial and body hair.

The pancreas:
 It is located just below the stomach within the curve of the duodenum. It is both exocrine and
endocrine in function.
 It secretes hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.
 Insulin regulates the sugar level in our blood. Insulin secreted in small amounts increases
the sugar level in our blood which in turn causes a disease called diabetes mellitus.

The pineal gland:

 It is located near the centre of the brain, dorsal to the diencephalon.
 It produces the hormone melatonin.
 Melatonin affects reproductive development, modulation of wake and sleep patterns, and
seasonal functions.
The hypothalamus:
 It is a neuro-endocrine part of the brain.
 It links the nervous system and the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.
 Hormones like Stomatostatin, Dopamine are secreted by this gland.

Parathyroid glands:
 These are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands embedded on the dorsal surface of the
thyroid gland present in the neck.
 They secrete parathormone. It helps in regulation of calcium and phosphate ions in the bones
and blood.
 Hyposecretion leads to tetany and hypersecretion causes osteoporosis.

The thymus gland:

 It is located in front of the heart, in the upper part of the sternum.
 It produces the hormone thymosine.
 It helps in the maturation of T-lymphocytes.
 The timing and amount of hormones released are regulated by feedback mechanisms.
 For example, if the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of pancreas which
respond by producing more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is
reduced.

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