MODULE-III
VENTILATION, PASSIVE DESIGN.
VENTILATION
• Humans consume oxygen, taken from the air by breathing, and exhale carbon dioxide.
• An average person, depending on his activity, inhales about 0.5 to 5 m3 /h.
• In a closed environment oxygen content is reduced and the carbon dioxide content is
increased by man's presence.
• Biologically the limit of existence is 0.5% C02 content (by volume) but a 0.15% content
already gives a markedly 'used air' effect.
• Body smells, fumes and vapours produced by a variety of processes, such as smoking,
add to the deterioration of an enclosed volume of air.
• A supply of fresh air at a rate substantially higher than the volume of actually inhaled air
will be necessary.
• Natural ventilation -An adequate air supply can be ensured simply by keeping the
windows and doors open.
• Mechanical ventilation – Ventilation through mechanical control system. If there are no
windows, Mechanical ventillation should be installed.
• Supply of air should be at the rate of 12 to 28 m3 /h per person, depending on the
volume of space and the activities carried out.
• The motive force can be either thermal or dynamic (wind).
VENTILATION AND AIR MOVEMENT
FUNCTIONS OF VENTILATION
Ventilation has three main functions
1. supply of fresh air
2. convective cooling
3. physiological cooling
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Supply of fresh air:
The requirements of fresh air in a building are determined by the following factors,
1. The type of occupancy
2. Number of the occupants
3. Activity of the occupants
4. Nature of processes carried out in the space
• The provision for ventilation is given in buildings in the form of permanent
[Link] or air bricks built into walls can serve as permanent ventilators.
• The size of openable window is described in relation to the floor area of the room.
Convective cooling:
• The exchange of used and hot indoor air with fresh and cool outdoor air can provide
cooling.
• The moving air acts as a heat carrying medium.
• The cooling effect produced by the convective heat loss is called convective cooling.
Physiological cooling
• The cooling effect produced by the movement of cool air past the skin surface is called
Physiological cooling.
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• By directing an air stream of substantial velocity at the body surface. This is
achieved by table-top or ceiling mounted fans (punkahs), which do not provide air
exchange, but generate an air movement
• The movement of air past the skin surface accelerates heat dissipation in two ways.
1. Increases convective heat loss
2. Accelerates evaporation
• It is most significant in medium humidities (35 to 60%).
• In very low humidity (below 30%) this cooling effect is not great as there is an
unrestricted evaporation even with very light air movement.
• In high humidity (above 85%) also this cooling effect is restricted by the high vapour
pressure preventing evaporation.
• Cooling by air movement is necessary where there are:
• no other forms of heat dissipation available
• the air is as warm as the skin
• Surrounding surfaces are at a similar temperature.
Evaporative cooling
When water evaporates heat energy called latent heat is absorbed by the water as it
changes its state from liquid to vapour. This phenomenon can be successfully utilised for
cooling air. During evaporation water absorbs the latent heat from the surrounding air.
The cooling thus felt is called evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling can be
successfully utilised for the cooling of air when the air itself is dry, so that the moisture
does not cause inconvenience – and it may even improve the conditions.- In case of
hot-dry climates
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STACK EFFECT
• The stack effect relies on thermal forces, set up by density difference (caused by
temperature differences) between the indoor and out-door air.
• It can occur through an open window (when the air is still)
• Warmer and lighter indoor air will flow out at the top and the cooler, denser outdoor air
will flow in at the bottom.
• Special provision can be made for it in the form of ventilating shafts.
• Such shafts are often used for the ventilation of internal, windowless rooms (bathrooms
and toilets) in Europe.
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• The higher the shaft, the larger the cross-sectional area and the greater the
temperature difference: the greater the motive force therefore, the more air will be
moved.
• Ps = 0.042 × h × ΔT
• Where,
• Ps = stack pressure in N/m2
• h = height of stack in m
• ΔT =temperature difference in degC
WIND EFFECT
• Thermal forces will rarely be sufficient to create appreciable air movements. The only
'natural' force that can be relied on is the dynamic effect of winds
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• Wind is generated by pressure differences – so an air flow through the building is the
result of a pressure difference between the two sides.
• Ventilation is effected by the direction and velocity of wind outside and sizes and
positions of the openings.
• Wind creates pressure difference and when it blows against a building, a positive
pressure is created on the windward side and negative pressure on leeward side.
• Suction will occur on the other side and the wind will blow from the windward side to the
other side if there is an opening.
• Laminar air flow tends to maintain a straight path after it has been diverted, therefore it
will take some time to return to the ground surface after the obstacle, to occupy all
the available 'cross-section'. Thus a stagnant mass of air is also formed on the leeward
side, but this is at a reduced pressure. In fact, this is not quite stagnant: a vortex is
formed, the movement is light and variable and it is often referred to as 'wind shadow'.
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THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT INDOOR AIRFLOW
i. Orientation. The greatest pressure on the windward side of a building is generated
when the elevation is at right angles to the wind direction. In this case the greatest
indoor air will be achieved. A wind incidence at 450will reduce the pressure by 50 per
cent. A wind incidence at 450 will increase the average indoor air velocity and will
provide a better distribution of indoor air movement. The designer must decide what
function is to be served and must orient the building accordingly.
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ii. External features. Wind shadows created by obstruction should be avoided in
positioning the building on the site and in positioning the openings in the building.
iii. Cross ventilation. In the absence of an outlet opening there can be no effective air
movement through a building even if there are strong winds. Airflow loses much of
its kinetic energy each time it is diverted over an obstacle. For effective ventilation
through a building an inlet and outlet should be provided on opposite sides of the
walls.
Fig-- Lack of cross ventilation
iv. Positioning of openings. To be effective, the air movements should be directed at the
body
surfaces or through the living zone. The relative magnitude of pressure build-up in
front of the solid areas of the elevations will govern the direction of the indoor air
stream. This will be independent of the outlet opening position. A larger solid surface
creates a larger pressure build-up and this pushes the air stream in an opposite
direction both in plan and in section. Arrange the solid and void spaces in order to
divert the air stream through living zone.
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v. Size of openings. The largest air velocity will be obtained through a small inlet
opening with a large outlet. Such an arrangement is useful if the airstream is to be
directed at a given part of a room. When the inlet opening is large, the air velocity
will be less but the total rate of airflow will be higher. A large inlet opening is
desirable when the wind direction is not constant. The best arrangement is full wall
openings on both sides with adjustable shutters which assist in channelling the airflow
in the required direction.
vi. Controls of openings. Sashes can divert the airflow upwards. Only reversible pivot
sash will channel it downward into the living zone.
Canopies eliminate the effect of pressure build-up above the window. Thus the
pressure below the window will direct the airflow upwards. A gap between the
building face and the canopy will ensure a downward pressure into the living zone.
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The position of blades of a Louvre in a slightly upward position would channel the
flow into living zone.
AIR MOVEMENT AROUND BUILDINGS
Height of building
Wind creates pressure difference and when it blows against a building, a positive pressure is
created on the windward side and negative pressure on leeward side. Suction will occur on the
other side and the wind will blow from the windward side to the other side if there is an opening.
air stream separation at the face of
buildings
On the face of tall block air stream separates and part of it move upwards over the face. When it
reaches the roof, part of it moves downwards which causes to form a large zone of negative
pressure to build up behind the tall block. An increased velocity is found at ground level at the
sides of the tall block. The effect is reduced if the block is permeable to wind.
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Reverse flow behind a tall block
If a low building is located in the wind shadow of tall block, an air flow of higher velocity, in
In grid-iron layout – stagnant air zones leeward from the first row will overlap the
second row.
A spacing of 6 times of height is necessary to ensure adequate air movement for the
second row.
reverse direction can be experienced through the low building.
Spacing between building
In checker board pattern- the flow field is much more uniform, stagnant air zones are almost
eliminated.
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AIR MOVEMENT AND RAIN
• Exclusion of rain and making provision for air movement together and simultaneously is
not an easy task.
• The conventional tilted louvre blades are unsatisfactory on two counts:
1 strong wind will drive the rain in, even upwards through the louvres
2 the air movement will be directed upwards from the living zone
• Verandahs and large roof overhangs are perhaps the best traditional methods of
protection.
• Koenigsberger, Millar and Costopoulos found that M type louvres are best in keeping
away the rain and providing air circulation at the same time
WORKING OF WINDSCOOP
In Hot-Dry Climates humidification of the air may be necessary, which can be associated with
evaporative cooling. In these climates the building is normally closed to preserve the cooler air
retained within the structure of high thermal capacity, also to exclude sand and dust carried by
winds. However, some form of air supply to the building interior is necessary. All these
functions:- controlled air supply, filtering out sand and dust, evaporative cooling and
humidification- are served by a device called the wind scoop. The large intake opening
captures air movement above the roofs in densely built up areas. The water seeping through
the porous pottery jars evaporates, some drips down onto the charcoal placed on a grating
through which the air is filtered. The Cooled air assists the downward movement-a reversed
stack effect. This device is very useful for ventilation (the above four functions), but it cannot be
expected to create an air movement strong enough for physiological cooling.
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OTHER EVAPORATIVE COOLING STRATEGIES
• In some parts of India a curtain made of cascas grass is often hung in front of windows on
the windward side.
• This is wetted by throwing a bucket of water against it from time to time.
• The grass is highly absorptive and retains the moisture for a long time.
• The wind passing through the loose textured mat curtain is both cooled and humidified.
• In recent years, the cascas mat is often hung from a perforated water pipe, which keeps it
uniformly moist at all time.
• Israel- honeycombed brick grill, with a perforated water pipe at the top was used for
humidity control.
• The water pipe may be supplied by an automatic flush-cistern,
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•
• The 'desert cooler' developed in Delhi, is a cube shaped frame, of 500 to 600 mm
sides.
• The top and bottom are shallow tanks. The sides are covered with cascas mats, the top of
which is immersed in the upper tank.
• Water seeps down through the mat and is collected in the lower tank. Inside the box is an
ordinary table fan, which blows air through the cascas mat, cooling and humidifying it.
• The fan motor may also drive a small pump, which lifts the surplus water back to the
upper tank. If the box is mounted in or near a window, it is quite effective during the dry
season.
• It is not used during the monsoon period.
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PASSIVE DESIGN
Passive design strategies use ambient energy sources instead of purchased energy like electricity
or natural gas. These strategies include day lighting, natural ventilation, and solar energy.
1. PASSIVE COOLING
2. PASSIVE HEATING
PASSIVE COOLING
Passive cooling, covers all natural processes and techniques for cooling buildings.
It is cooling without any form of energy input, other than renewable energy sources.
Passive cooling techniques are also closely linked to the thermal comfort of the occupants.
The passive cooling of buildings is broadly categorized under three sections
(i). Heat prevention/reduction, (Reduce heat gains)
(ii). Thermal moderation (Modify heat gains) and
(iii). Heat Dissipation (Remove internal heat).
How to achieve Passive Cooling?
1. Building Orientation
2. Ventilation
3. Convective Cooling
4. Physiological and evaporative cooling
5. Shading (shading devices,trees & plants, shading of roof)
STRATEGIES
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[Link] NIGHT AIR
Cool night air is a reliable source of cooling, where cool breezes are limited and diurnal
temperature ranges usually exceed 6−8°C. Hot air radiating from a building fabric’s thermal
mass is replaced with cooler night air drawn by internal−external temperature differentials rather
than breezes. Full height, double hung windows are ideal for this purpose. Warm air rises
to escape through high level outlets, drawing in lower level cool night air or cooler daytime
air from shaded external areas (south) or evaporative cooling ponds and fountains.
2. SOLAR CHIMNEYS
Solar chimneys enhance stack ventilation by providing additional height and well-designed
air passages that increase the air pressure differential. Warmed by solar radiation, chimneys
heat the rising air and increase the difference in temperature between incoming and out-flowing
air. The increase in natural convection from these measures enhances the draw of air through the
building.
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Solar chimneys enhance ventilation.
[Link] COUPLING
Earth coupling utilises cooler ground temperatures. Passively shaded areas around earth-coupled
slabs keep surface ground temperatures lower during the day and allow night-time cooling.
Poorly shaded surrounds can lead to earth temperatures exceeding internal comfort levels in
many areas. In this event, an earth-coupled slab can become an energy liability. Earth-coupled
construction (including slab-on-ground and earth covered) utilises stable ground temperatures at
lower depths to absorb household heat gains.
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❖ DIRECT COUPLING
• Direct coupling or earth sheltering occurs when a building uses earth as a buffer for
the walls.
• The earth acts as a heat sink and can effectively mitigate temperature extremes.
• Earth sheltering improves the performance of building envelopes by reducing heat losses
and also reduces heat gains by limiting infiltration.
❖ INDIRECT COUPLING
• Indirect coupling means that a building is coupled with the earth by means of earth
ducts.
• An earth duct is a buried tube that acts as avenue for supply air to travel through before
entering the building.
• The supply air is cooled by conductive heat transfer between the tubes and surrounding
soil.
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• A fan is required to draw the air from the earth duct into the building.
4. ENVELOPE DESIGN — FLOOR PLAN AND BUILDING FORM
Envelope design is the integrated design of building form and materials as a total system to
achieve optimum comfort and energy savings. Heat enters and leaves a building through the roof,
walls, windows and floor, collectively referred to as the building envelope. The internal layout
— walls, doors and room arrangements — also affects heat distribution within a building. Good
design of the envelope and internal layout responds to climate and site conditions to optimise the
thermal performance. It can lower operating costs, improve comfort and lifestyle and minimise
environmental impact. Varied responses are required for each climate zone and even within each
zone depending on local conditions and the microclimate of a given site. Maximise the
indoor−outdoor relationship and provide outdoor living spaces that are screened, shaded and rain
protected. Maximise convective ventilation with high level windows and ceiling or roof space
vents. Zone living and sleeping areas appropriately for climate — vertically and horizontally.
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Locate bedrooms for sleeping comfort. Design ceilings and position furniture for optimum
efficiency of fans, cool breezes and convective ventilation. Locate mechanically cooled rooms in
thermally protected areas (i.e. highly insulated, shaded and well sealed).
[Link] MASS
• Thermal mass is a property of construction materials to absorb, store, and release heat
energy. It is an important element of passive solar building design and can be utilized for
passive solar heating, passive solar cooling, or both. It helps in reducing energy
consumption.
• The utilization of thermal mass in passive solar house design should be considered when
there is a difference between day and night temperatures.
• The most commonly used thermal mass structural elements are concrete slabs and
walls.
• They should be placed at a certain position to receive adequate sunlight. These locations
may vary based on the direction of the building to the sun.
• The rate at which thermal mass emits absorbed heat energy is called thermal lag/time
lag.
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Materials with thermal mass characteristics generally have a high density.
Thermal mass for cooling buildings
• The ability of thermal mass to absorb a
large amount of heat can be used to
provide a cooling effect inside a passive
house. Initially, the mass absorbs the heat and
keeps the inside space cool. Then, the heat
energy of the mass is released and driven out
of the building using proper ventilation.
• In addition, the thermal mass can capture and
store cooler evening and night temperatures
during nights that aid in cooling the house
during days
• ‘Good thermal mass’ usually describes a
block of material that has high thermal mass and long thermal lag times.
Thermal mass for heating buildings
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• Thermal mass is usually used to help heat home in winter (by allowing the sun to heat
up the mass during the day and release that heat at night). But, it is important to ensure
thermal mass is protected from summer sun. Badly positioned mass heats up and
radiates heat well into the night.
• Shade thermal mass in living areas during the day in summer, and avoid or limit thermal
mass in upstairs sleeping areas. In climates with little or no heating requirement, low
mass is generally the preferred option.
[Link] PONDING
• The roof pond is a system that passively incorporates water elements to passively cool
and heat the building.
• Water naturally tends to absorb heat from ambient surroundings and converts it into
vapour. This process allows the opportunity for the surrounding air temperature to be
reduced. Thus helps in cooling.
• The roof pond can be applied in three different methods.
• Dry (water is contained in plastic bags) such as skytherm house,
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• Wet (the plastic bags or gunny bags are sprayed or flooded) such as universidad pompeu
fabra, and
• Open (water is contained within the parapet).
SUMMER – COOLING CYCLE
In general, during the day, the pond is covered to prevent heating and open for cooling at
night.
• DURING DAY-TIME in the summer, it is vital to protect the pond from solar radiation.
• This can be done through covering the pond with a reflective cover, to reflect the
solar radiation off.
• Spraying the pond or the protective cover can further enhance the functionality of the
system as it will further cool down through evaporation.
• DURING NIGHT TIME the pond cools the below spaces through long wave radiation
to the atmosphere, making interior spaces cooler.
• Day time - The covered roof keeps heat out and the indoor space cool during day time.
• Night time -The uncovered roof expose the water to the sky. The water radiates absorbed
heat into the air during night time.
WINTER – HEATING CYCLE
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• DAY-TIME - The roof pond being exposed during the day absorbs heat through solar
radiation and transfers it into the interior of the house, thus, passively warming it up.
• - The uncovered roof draws heat during day-time to collect solar heat in the water bags.
• NIGHT-TIME - a protection cover can be placed over the pond to prevent heat loss.
• The covered roof then radiates the heat from the water bag to interior of the house during
night time
[Link] ROOF
• A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely
covered with vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing
membrane. It may also include additional layers such as a root
barrier and drainage and irrigation systems.
• Green roof can reduce heating by adding mass and thermal resistance value, also can
reduce the heat island by increasing evapotranspiration.
• Green roofs can also reduce heat loss and energy consumption in winter conditions.
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• A green roof reduces cooling (by evaporative cooling) loads on a building by fifty to
ninety percent, especially if it is glassed-in so as to act as a terrarium and passive solar
heat reservoir.
• A concentration of green roofs in an urban area can even reduce the city's average
temperatures during the summer, combating the urban heat island effect.
ADVANTAGES
• Green roofs improve and reduce energy consumption
• Increases acoustic and thermal insulation.
• Green roofs reduce building energy use by cooling roofs and providing shading,
• It helps to lower urban air temperatures and mitigate the heat island effect.
• Absorbs rainwater - Green roofs decrease the total amount of runoff and slow the rate of
runoff from the roof.
• Habitat for wildlife
• Aesthetically pleasing landscape
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DISADVANTAGES
• Increase in roof load
• Chances of roof leakage
• Higher installation and maintenance cost.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
[Link] WALLS
● Composite walls comprise of a number of layers of different materials with different
properties and thicknesses.
● The material will have varying resistivity and conductivity.
● The composite wall is used to create the required amount of thermal resistance by
arranging the number of layers of different materials.
● Each layer is made up of different materials like wood, metals, refractory bricks, foam,
glass wool, etc.
● Therefore the composite wall helps us to meet different purposes along with thermal
insulation.
● Other properties of composite wall - high strength, lightweight, and compactness.
● The composite wall is generally used in the following applications:-
1) In cold places to avoid heat loss from buildings.
2) In industrial equipment to avoid heat loss.
3) In kitchen equipment like a thermos, Oven, etc.
Cavity walls
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[Link] WALLS
• Cavity wall is constructed with two separate walls and some space or cavity in between
them.
• These two separate walls are called as leaves of cavity wall. The inner wall is called as
internal leaf and outer wall is called as external leaf. Cavity wall is also called as Hollow
wall.
Uses of Cavity walls
01. Damp Prevention
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Cavity walls reduces the chance of moisture intrusion from outer leaf to the inner leaf and thus
helps in keeping inside of the building free from dampness.
02. Thermal Insulation
The air in the cavity wall acts as a non-conductor of heat and hence minimizes the transmission
of heat from the outer leaf to the internal face of the interior leaf. Thus, cavity walls help in
maintaining the thermal insulation of a premise.
03. Sound Insulation
The air in the cavity acts as a cushion for absorbing sound. By building cavity walls, a premise
may work as a sound proof zone as a large quantity of external noise gets absorbed within the
cavity.
04. Efflorescence Prevention
As dampness is not allowed to penetrate the cavity, the inner leaf of the cavity, which is always a
load bearing wall, is kept free from efflorescence effects.
[Link]
[Link] ROOF
• A double roof is known as a very effective way
to reduce both the conduction and convection heat
transfer from a roof to the ceiling of a building.
• Space between the 2 roofs should be ventilated.
• Double roofs are used in climate responsive designs to
reduce heat gain and protect the structure from natural
elements such as rain, sunlight, and wind.
• In hot climates, double roofs allow warm air buildup
between the roof and structure to escape, reducing the cooling loads.
• The double roof consists of a pitched concrete slab as bottom layer and a corrugated roof
panel acting as a top layer.
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• The double roof stands between the interior of the home and the exterior world serving as
a barrier against heat, rain, noise and debris.
[Link] SLAB
• Filler slab is an alternate slab construction technology where part of concrete in the
bottom of slab is replaced by filler material.
• Filler materials includes replacement includes bricks, cellular concrete blocks,
terracotta tiles, pots, plastic bottles.
• The basic principal is that the concrete in bottom half of RCC slab is structurally not
required as concrete acts as compression material which is required in top half portion
of slab.
• So this portion concrete is replaced by low cost, light weight filler material like
mangalore tile, clay pots etc.
• Enhances thermal comfort inside the building due to heat-resistant qualities of filler
materials and the gap between two burnt clay tiles.
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• It gives an excellent thermal insulation layer due to the air pocket formed by the
contours of the tiles
5. DIODE ROOF
The diode roof is a heat-pipe system consisting of a pebble roof wetted with water and
protected with long, black polyethylene bags, which have upper outside faces painted with
white TiO2. The system is efficient, favouring heat losses during the night and refusing solar
gains. The experiments have proved the possibility of passive cooling 7°C below the outside
maximum air temperature.
Works on principle of radiative cooling.
The diode roof is principally the combination of the insulated roof in the daytime and the heat
conductor roof in the night-time.
DAY - TIME
• The daytime thermal insulation is obtained by using bags containing sufficient rock
mass. The closed bags are painted on the upper and outside faces with titanium oxide.
• The bags cover a corrugated iron roof.
NIGHT - TIME
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• The effect of the heat conductor during the night- time is produced by a small quantity
of water in the bags.
• Heat is transferred from the inside to the outside by evaporation and condensation on
the upper inside face of the bags.
• Heat transfer stops when the temperature of the upper surface of the bags is greater than
the temperature of the rocks.
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