MODULE –IV

SHELTERS IN TROPICAL CLIMATES

Chapter – I ---SHELTER FOR HOT, DRY CLIMATE

Nature of the climate

These climates are characterised by very hot, dry air and dry ground.

Day-time air temperatures may range between 27 and 49 Deg. C. but at night it may fall as much as 22 Deg. C.

Humidity is continuously moderate to low.

There is no cloud cover to reduce high intensity of direct solar radiation.

The clear sky permits a considerable amount of radiation to re-radiated to outer space at night.

This climate discourages plant life and the dry dusty ground reflects strong sunlight producing an uncomfortable ground
glare.

Local thermal winds often carry dust and sand.

Physiological objectives

Physical comfort by day depends on reduction of intense radiation from the sun, ground and surrounding buildings.

Walls and roofs should maintain inner surface temperatures less than the skin temperature during the day.

This will allow the body to dissipate some of its surplus heat to the surrounding surfaces by radiation as well as cool the
indoor air by convection.

At night the air temperature is low enough to permit an increase in effective temperature by surface temperatures

higher than this air temperature.

Because of the low humidity, evaporation is higher than in any other climate and takes place so readily.

Breezes cannot be used to advantage indoors unless the air is cooled and the dust filtered out.

Form and Planning

An enclosed, compactly planned and inward-looking building is the most suitable.

By placing as much accommodation as possible under one roof, thermal load from sun and hot air can be reduced.

Surfaces exposed to the sun should be reduced as much as possible.

Major axis of the building should face north and south to reduce heat load from solar radiation.

The worst orientation is the West.

Non-habitable rooms(store,toilet) can be used as thermal barriers if placed on the east and west ends of the building.
Shading of roofs and walls is critical.

Projecting roofs and verandas, shading devices, trees and utilisation of surrounding walls and buildings are the

techniques for solving this problem.

Low thermal capacity materials are used for shading devices to ensure quick cooling after sunset.

Buildings should be aligned close to each other in order to get mutual shading to reduce heat gains on external walls.
Close groups of buildings, narrow roads and streets, colonnades, small enclosed courtyards are the main features.

Double roof construction is a solution for the shading of roofs.

To dissipate heat from the space between the two roofs, space should be well ventilated.

Reflective surfaces should be used on both surfaces of roofs.

External Spaces

The best external space in this type of climate is a courtyard with a pool which retains cool night air.

The courtyard is an excellent thermal regulator in many ways.

High walls cut off the sun. The larger areas of the inner surfaces and the courtyard floor are shaded during the day.

Cooler air, cooler surfaces, the earth beneath the courtyard will draw heat from the surrounding areas, re-emit it to the

open sky during the night. If trees were planted inside the courtyard, trees, plants and water in the enclosed space will cool

the air by evaporation, help to keep dust down and provide shade.

Roofs, walls and openings

The roofs and walls should be constructed with materials having large thermal capacities.

These will absorb much of the heat entering through the outer surface during the day, before the inner surface

temperature would show any appreciable increase.

The heat stored during the day must be dissipated during the night.

Heat dissipation through the inside surfaces should be assisted during the night by adequate ventilation.

During the day, the absence of openings would be most desirable.

During the night openings should by

the walls and roofs.

A solution satisfying both the requirements is the use of large openings with massive shutters with a thermal capacity as

that of walls.

The shutters are closed during the day and must be opened during the night.

In regions where diurnal ranges are less extreme, the large thermal capacity should be restricted to internal walls,

partitions and floors.

The outer walls and roofs need to have high resistive insulation.

Alternatively, separate day and night rooms could provide.

The day room is enclosed with high thermal capacity elements

The night room is enclosed with thinner elements of lighter materials.

The ground can also be used as means of heat storage.

The building should have the maximum contact with the ground.

Roof and wall surfaces

Light coloured or shiny external surfaces are used in this climate.

These will reflect a large part of the incident solar radiation.

Dark coloured surfaces should be avoided.

Ventilation and air flow

During the day, openings should be closed and shaded.

Air intake openings should be located at higher levels on the walls.

Ample ventilation during the night is necessary to dissipate the stored heat.

The space between the roofs should be ventilated.

TRADITIONAL SHELTER - FEATURES

Heavy walls of earth, brick or stone and roofs of the same materials

Good walls provide good thermal capacity

Rooms are often built around a central courtyard, which also provide outdoor space for family activities

Windows and door openings are small in size and few in number

Windows are located high on walls but ventilation is often inadequate during the night

Chapter – II ---SHELTER FOR WARM, HUMID CLIMATE

Nature of the climate

The most prominent characteristic of this climate are the hot sticky conditions and the continuous presence of dampness.

Air temperature remains moderately high between 21 and 32 Deg. C. with little variation between day and night.

Humidity is high during all seasons.

Heavy cloud and water vapour in the air act as a filter to direct solar radiation so the solar radiation is reduced and
diffused.

The cloud coverage also prevent re-radiation from the earth at night.

High rainfall is another feature.

The plant cover of the ground reduces reflected radiation and lessens the heating up of ground surface.

Winds are generally of low speed; variable in speed but almost constant in direction.

Physiological objectives

Because the air temperature is near the skin temperature, heat loss by convection or conduction is negligible.

To achieve physical comfort, there must be some heat dissipation from the body to its environment at least as the
metabolic heat production of the body.

In high humidity air, the evaporation of moisture from body would form a saturated air envelope, preventing any further
evaporation.

This will block the last resort of heat dissipation.

This saturated air envelope can be removed by air movement.

Some degree of comfort can be achieved by encouraging outdoor breezes to pass not only through the building but also
across the body surfaces of the occupants.

As there is no significant cooling down at night, the wall and roof surface temperatures tend to even out and settle at the
same level as the air temperature.

This evening out is also promoted by the flow of outdoor air through the building.

Radiant heat loss from the body will be negligible as the surface temperatures are near to skin temperature.

Radiant heat gain from the sun and sky should be prevented.
Form and planning

Open elongated plan shapes are most suitable with a single row of rooms to allow cross ventilation.

Groups of buildings also tend to be spread out.

Extended plans in a line across the prevailing wind direction is the ideal solution.

Plant cover restricts the movement of air near the ground.

Therefore it is necessary to elevate the building on pillars.

The intensity of the radiation is a significant source of heat.

Therefore, its entry into the building should be prevented.

Openness and shading are the dominant characteristic of the building.

Shading of all vertical surfaces of both openings and solid walls will be beneficial.

From the point of view of solar heat gain, the best orientation is the long axis in the east-west direction.

With low rise buildings, where the walls would not get much radiation, orientation for wind is more advisable.

With high-rise buildings, avoidance of sun should be the decisive factor.

External spaces

External spaces should be shaded and free passage of air movement should be ensured through the space.

Pergolas and light framing covered by climbing plants can be provided.

Open spaces left under buildings elevated on stilts can also be put to use as outdoor space.
Roofs and walls

Because the temperature of the outside air remains almost the same throughout the day and night buildings should be of

low thermal capacity materials using lightweight construction.

A double roof construction with roof space ventilated a ceiling with its upper surface highly reflective and having a good

resistive insulation is suitable.

Both the roof and the ceiling should be of low thermal capacity.

A pitched roof is most often used as rainfall is rather high in these regions.

For solid vertical walls, insulation is not necessary if they are shaded.
If they are exposed, good insulation will prevent the rising of inner surface temperature above the air temperature.

Reflective qualities on the outer surface of such un-shaded walls will also be helpful.

Airflow and openings

Openings must be placed suitably in relation to the prevailing breezes.

It will permit natural airflow through the internal spaces at body level.

Such opening should be large and fully openable.

There is no point in having windows with fixed glass panes.

The openings should be free from the effect of outside obstructions.

The airflow should not pass over hot surfaces before reaching the building.

Ventilation

Ventilation is necessary.

Without the exchange of air, both temperature and humidity of room air will increase above the outdoor values due to the
heat and moisture output of human bodies and various human activities.

Therefore, there is a need for both a frequent change of air and a sensible air movement across the body surface.

Ventilation is also necessary to the space between the roof and ceiling.

Traditional shelters

Two types of shelters are found in warm-humid climates.

1. Where timber is scarce, single storey, earth-walled houses are typical.

Roof is framed in timber, bamboo or palm frond and covered with thatch.

Broad overhanging eaves shade the walls.

Disadvantages of this form of shelter

1. Unventilated interior will remain constantly damp and will create unbearable conditions

2. The benefits gained from breezes is prevented by fenced or walled compound.

3. The intense and heavy rains erode the bases and surfaces of earth walls, therefore annual maintenance is

essential

2. Where earth is unsuitable and timber is available, the traditional shelter is often elevated on pillars.

Constructed from local timber or bamboo frame with open-weave matting, timber or split bamboo walls,

Floors, doors and shutters.

Thatch or built up layers of leaves cover roof frame, which has broad overhanging eaves.

The light weight timber construction holds little heat and cools adequately at night.
The elevated position provides better air movement than single story shelters.

The thatched roof is an excellent thermal insulator.

Broad eaves shade the walls and openings, provide protection from driving rain and sky glare, and permit the

openings to be kept open most of the time.

It is difficult to employ any of the two types in towns.

Chapter – III---SHELTER FOR COMPOSITE CLIMATE

Nature of climate

These are neither hot and dry nor warm and humid.

Characteristic changes from season to season, alternating between long, hot, dry periods to shorter periods of concentrated
rainfall and high humidity.

In many areas there is also a third season with dry, sunny days and cold nights referred to as winter.

Physiological objectives

Physiological objectives set out for warm humid and hot dry climate can be applied to the respective seasons of composite

climate.

Additional problems are created by the third season.

During this season effective temperatures are much lower than in the two warmer seasons.

Physical comfort will depend on the prevention of heat loss from the body especially at night.

In warm seasons, the heat dissipation is inadequate but in the cold season, it may become excessive creating a sensation of

cold discomfort.

Design criteria

Design criteria for hot dry climates are equally applicable to hot dry season and cold season of composite climates.

But, monsoon season requires entirely different solutions.

Analysis of discomfort index shows that the cold season is the most important for thermal design.

Form and Planning

Moderately compact internal planning of houses will be of benefit for most of the year.

Courtyard type buildings are very suitable.

Buildings should be grouped to take advantage of prevailing breezes.

A moderately dense, low rise development is suitable.

It will ensure protection of outdoor spaces, mutual shading of external walls, shelter from wind in the cold season, shelter
from dust and reduction of surfaces exposed to solar radiation.

Houses with day and night rooms are good for composite climate. They would only be used during the hottest months.

External spaces

Hot season-Large projecting eves and wide verandas are needed in the warm humid season as outdoor living areas.

Shading devices should be of low thermal capacity.

During cold season, all shading is undesirable.

A courtyard with deciduous plants may be a solution for the problem.

Roofs and Walls

The retention of night time low wall temperature is desirable in hot-dry season only.

But the same thermal properties will be useful in the cold season to retain the heat of the day for the uncomfortably cold
nights.

Roofs and external walls should be constructed of solid masonry with9 -12 hour time lag in heat transmission.

Best arrangement is if the thermal capacity is provided in massive floors, partitions and ceilings, permitting the outer
walls to be used more freely for large openings.

Resistance insulation should be placed at the outside surfaces of external walls or roofs. Insulation on the inside would
only reduce the beneficial effects of high thermal capacity walls and roofs.

An advantage of low rise building is the greater contact of walls with the ground , thus the ground will also be used

for thermal storage.

Surface treatment

Hot season- Surfaces exposed to sun should be light coloured.

Cold season- Absorptive surfaces will be required.

Variable surfaces may be devised.

Openings
Orientation of openings is determined by:-

1. towards the breeze during warm humid season

2. towards sun during cold season

Reasonably large openings in opposite walls with solid shutters are suitable.

It can be opened when cross ventilation is necessary in warm humid season or for evening cooling in the hot season

Ventilation and condensation

As buildings are frequently closed for long periods, ventilation requirements for hot dry seasons are met with special

provisions.

Two small openings one at high level and one at low level or ventilating stacks may provide a solution.

When the indoor air is warmer than outdoor air the air flow will be in at low level and out at high level.

The reverse will occur when the outdoor temperature is higher than the indoor.

Occasionally during the period of transition, condensation may occur.

Use of porous and moisture absorbing materials is the best solution.

It will act as buffers, ie, absorbs moisture as condensation occurs and releases it as soon as the air is sufficiently dry.

TRADITIONAL SHELTER

Ground floor with massive walls and with large shuttered openings, laid out around a courtyard and a first floor structure

of light weight construction

These cool quickly at night, to allow fairly comfortable sleeping during hot season

The centre of life shifts with the season.

Chapter – IV---SHELTER FOR TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE

Nature of climate

This climate is similar to the composite or monsoon climates, with its distinct rainy seasons. It is dominated by strong
solar radiation, often with moderate to cool air temperature.

Air temperature rarely reaches 30°C but the diurnal variation can be as much as 20 degC.

Humidities are not excessive and there is an almost constant air movement, never very strong.

Physiological Objectives

As the air temperature rarely (if ever) exceeds the upper comfort limit, overheating would only be caused by solar
radiation when it is incident directly on the body or by heating up the building fabric.

Excessive glazed areas can be a source of overheating.

Protection against such overheating can be provided by several means:

1 The provision of adequate shading, both for windows and for external activity areas

2 by limiting the heat admission of buildings during the strongest sunshine hours (insulation, thermal inertia and
reflective colouring)
 3 if the building is overheated, this can be counteracted by the provision of adequate ventilation (air changes
only for convective cooling; sensible air movement, i.e. physiological cooling, is unnecessary)

Cold discomfort can often occur at night, even in the warm season.

People's clothing will be very different at night to that during the day.

The building itself can improve the cold night conditions by:

a. providing a closed (or closeable) internal environment

b. storing some of the heat gained from solar radiation, to re-emit it at night, during the cold period

c. if the above two means fail to achieve thermal comfort, some small amount of heating may have to be
provided

Form and planning

The building should be compact, as it would reduce heat gain during the day and heat loss during the night.

Windows and openings will have to be protected from solar radiation. Therefore, Solar control devices will be a
prominent design feature.

An oblong shaped plan, the longer walls should face north and south, and major openings should be located in these
walls. Windows facing east would admit the sun, but at a time when the air temperature is still quite low. Windows facing
west should be avoided.

External spaces

Hotter period : Well-shaded external spaces should be provided, as the very strong radiation would create hot
discomfort, even with quite low air temperatures.

Shade could be provided by the building itself, by pergolas, awnings or by vegetation

Cooler period : In the cooler period of the year sunshine may be welcome in external spaces.:

1 to provide some form of adjustable shading device to the external activity area - can be achieved by some
form of canvas awning, cantilevered or supported by a pergola-like frame, or by matting spread on some
framing

2 to provide alternative external spaces for use in the different seasons: shaded for the hot period and
unshaded, wind protected for the cool part of the year

Roof and walls

Nights are cool and solar radiation can cause overheating of buildings during the day. The task is to

[Link] limit the heat admitted during the strong sunshine hours

[Link] store some heat, to be re-emitted during the cool period

Both purposes would be well served by a high thermal capacity structure.

 A time- lag of 8 hours is advisable, as this would bring the maximum indoor heat emission to 20.00 to 21.00 hours, when
it is most needed, before the occupants go to bed.

(A 200 mm concrete slab, with screed and felt or a 150 mm concrete slab with an insulating screed would give this
performance.)

East, and west walls should be massive. North and south walls will not receive much radiation and they may be of a
lightweight construction.

In buildings occupied during the day but not at night (like office) a lower thermal capacity and time lag of 5 hours may be
sufficient.

Surface treatment

low thermal capacity building(only day time use)- Reflective surfaces would be useful in reducing the heat load. White
or bright metallic surfaces would be most advantageous for buildings occupied only during day-time.

High thermal capacity building (continuous occupancy) - darker, more absorbent surface finish may be more suitable.

A massive roof slab of at least 8 hours time-lag can become the most important heat regulator.

A black bituminous or asphalt finish can serve a useful purpose in absorbing much of the solar heat during the day to be
released after sunset.

For lightweight roofs (low thermal capcity buildings – like office) (with timber or metal decking) however good the
insulation, the use of absorbent surfaces must be avoided.

Openings

As the air temperature rarely (if ever) reaches the upper comfort limit, there is no need for physiological cooling by air
movement, and no need for cross-ventilation, as long as the problem of solar control is adequately solved.

Where solar overheating does occur, cross-ventilation may provide relief, but most of the time, it would contribute to
a feeling of cold discomfort.

Provide adequate closing of openings, windows and doors.

wind direction need not be considered in deciding the orientation of openings. Solar heat gain will be the only factor
governing the orientation of windows.

Lesser the openings, the easier the control. For ventilation and daylighting, in most cases, a window of some 20% of
the elevational area will be quite adequate.

Traditional Shelter

The traditional rural shelter in these climates is the round hut, with mud-and-wattle walls and thatched roofs.

The walls consist of vertical poles driven into the ground in a circle horizontal twigs and branches threaded in between
to form a basket-weave pattern. The whole is plastered with mud. Subsequent layers of mud are often built up to a
thickness of 0-25 m, thus providing a substantial thermal 233 capacity .

In some areas the mud-and-wattle construction is carried through the roof, which will also have a high thermal capacity.
In urban areas where stone is available, masonry walling and slate roofs are used . Roofs may still be thatched or of
wood framework plastered with mud. Openings are always small.