SC 411: DESIGN OF STEEL

STRUCTURES
8 UNITS
 Course Objectives
1. To introduce to students the theory and application of analysis
and design of steel structures.

2. To develop students with an understanding of the behavior and

design of structural steel members and systems.

3. To prepare students for the effective use of the latest industry

standards, codes of practice and design aids in the design of
structural steel members.
 Course outline
1 Concepts of Structural Steelwork
1.1 Structural steel
1.2 The importance of steel building materials
1.3 Structural steel sections

2 Design philosophy for Structural Steelwork

2.1 Requirements for structural steel work
2.2 Ultimate limit state theory
2.3 Serviceability limit state theory
Course outline
3 Design of Structural Steel Elements
3.1 Tension members,
3.2 Compression members,
3.3 Design of flexural members,
3.4 Lateral torsional buckling of beams,
3.5 Members subjected to combined axial and flexural loads
3.6 Bases

4 Design of Connections
4.1 Welded connections
4.2 Bolted connections
 Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:

1. recognize the design philosophy of steel structures and have concept

on limit state design understand the behavior of steel structures, in
particular the various forms of failure for members and connections,
under tension, compression, bending and combined actions

2. understand the behavior of steel structures, in particular the various

forms of failure for members and connections under tension,
compression, bending and combined actions

3. apply the principles, procedures and current code requirements to the

analysis and design of steel tension members, beams, columns,
beam- columns, bases and connections
 Mode of Assessment
1. Continuous assessment (CA):

1.1 Closed book mid semester test (at week 7 -9) …….… 20%

1.2 Group project (to be submitted at week 13 – 14) ……. 20%

Total (1.1 +1.2) ………………...………………………….. 40%

2. End of Semester (UE) closed book exam ..……..……. 60%

Total maximum course score (CA + UE) …………………..…100%

 Lecture 1.1
1.1.1 Concepts of Structural Steelwork
What are Steel Structures?
A structure which is made from organised combination of structuralSTEEL
members designed to carry loads and provide adequate rigidity

Steel structures involve a sub-structure or members in a building made

from structural steel.
Some famous steel structures
WALT DISNEYCONCERTHALL,US TYNEBRIDGE,UK HOWRAHBRIDGE,INDIA
 Advantages of using Steel in Structures

 High strength
 The high ratio of strength to weight (the strength per unit weight)
 Excellent ductility and seismic resistance
 Withstand extensive deformation without failure even under high
tensile stress.
 Elasticity, uniformity of material
 Predictability of properties, close to design assumption
 Ease of fabrication and speed of erection
Most important
Steel structures facilitate ease of fabrication and faster
erection of structure. Bolts and welding employed for
joining .
 Disadvantages of using steel in a structure

• Susceptibility to corrosion
• Maintenance costs / thin-walled structure
• Loss of strength at elevatedtemperature Bucling phenomenon
• Fireproofing costs
• Susceptibility to buckling
• Fatigue and brittle fracture
Where & when use steel structures?

1. Long-span structures
2. Multi-storey & high-rise buildings
3. Buildings of heavy duty plants
4. Tower & mast structures
5. Portal frames
6. Bridges
7. Infrastructures
 1.1.2 Structural Steel Elements
Steel buildings are composed of distinct elements:
(1) Beams and girders—members carrying lateral loads in
bending and shear;
(2) Ties—members carrying axial loads in tension;
(3) Struts, columns or stanchions—members carrying axial
loads in compression. These members are often subjected to
bending as well as compression;
(4) Trusses and lattice girders—framed members carrying
lateral loads. These are composed of struts and ties;
(5) Purlins—beam members carrying roof sheeting;

(6) Sheeting rails—beam members supporting wall cladding;

(7) Bracing—diagonal struts and ties that, with columns and

roof trusses, form vertical and horizontal trusses to resist
wind loads and hence provided the stability of the building.
 LECTURE 1.2
Mechanical Properties of
Structural Steel
 Steel
 Man made metal derived from iron-
which is its major constituent
 Remaining components are small
amounts of other elements
 Added to improve the quality of steel

Iron ore products

Cast iron
Steel
Wrought iron
Used as:
 Basic products of steel mill such as
plate, section and bars
 From this members are fabricated viz.
beams, girders, columns, struts, ties
etc.
 Steel vs. Cast Iron
 Up to 1.5 % Carbon combines with iron
 More than 1.5 -4.5 % present as free graphite
– known as cast iron
 Properties vary with the varying carbon content
 Increasing carbon content produces increase in
shear strength & hardness
 Decreases the ductility and toughness
Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel

Cast Iron Wrought iron Steel

composition Crude form containing Purest Midway

2-4% carbon Contains up to
0.25% carbon
Melting point 1200 degree Celsius 1500 degree 1300-1400 degree
Celsius Celsius

Hardness Hard, hardened by Cannot be Can be hardened &

heating & sudden hardened or tempered
cooling tempered
Strength Comp. strength compressive Comp strength
6.3-7.1 tonnes/sq cm strength is 2.0 4.75 -25.2 tonnes/
Ultimate tensile tonnes/sq cm and sq cm
strength 1.26 to ultimate tensile Ultimate tensile
1.57tonnes/sq cm. strength 3.15 strength is 5.51 to
tonnes/sq cm 11.02 t /sq m
 Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel
Cast Iron Wrought iron Steel

Rusting Does not rust Rusts more than Rusts easily

easily Cast Iron
Malleability&Duct Brittle & cannot Tough, Tough, malleable
ility be welded or malleable, ductile & Ductile
rolled into sheets & moderately
elastic

Reaction to Does not absorb Cannot stand Absorbs shocks

sudden shock shocks heavy shocks

Forging & Brittle and Easily forged or Rapidly forged or

Welding cannot be welded welded
welded or rolled
into sheets
Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel
Cast Iron Wrought iron Steel

For parts that Costlier than Used as

rust easily like mild steel so reinforcemen
water pipes, being replaced t in PSC. &
Uses sewers, drain by the latter R.C.C.
pipes etc. Withstand Used in making
Making such shocks without St. members,
parts of permanent bolts, rivets
machines as injury so used and sheets
are not likely to in chains, (plain and
be subjects to crane hooks corrugated)
shocks or and railway Making
tension couplings cutlery, files
Lamp posts, & machine
columns and tools
railings
 Types of Steel:
(According to varying Carbon Content)
 Dead Mild Steel (Less than 0.15 % Carbon )

 Mild Steel (0.15 – 0.30 % Carbon)

 Medium Carbon Steel (0.30 -0.80 % Carbon)

 High Carbon Steel (0.80 -1.50 % Carbon)

 Cast Steel / Carbon Tool Steel

(More than 1.50 % Carbon)
 OUR MAIN
Mild Steel CONCERN
 Ductile & malleable
 More tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought
iron More prone to rusting than wrought iron
 Corrodes quickly
 Easily forged, welded & riveted
 Withstands shocks & impacts well
 Not much affected by saline water
 Equally strong in tension, compression and in shear
 Difficult to harden and temper
 Sp. Gravity 7.8
 OUR MAIN
Mild Steel : Uses CONCERN

 Used as rolled structural sections like I-

section; T-section; channel Section; angle
irons. Plates round and square rods, M.S.
Round bars
 Used as reinforcement in R.C.C.
 M.S. tubes are used in structures
 Plain and Corrugated M.S. Sheets are used in
roofing
Medium Carbon Steel

 Granular structure
 More tough & elastic than M.S.
 Easier to harden & to temper
 More difficult to to forge and to weld
 Stronger in compression than in tension or in
shear
 Withstands shocks and vibrations better
Medium Carbon Steel : Uses
 For making tools such as dills, files,
chisels
 Used for making those parts that ae
hard , tough and durable and capable
of withstanding shocks and vibrations
 High Carbon Steel

Increased tensile strength leads to less weight

of it being used as compared to M.S.
(Structure becomes lighter)
Resists corrosion better
Tougher and more elastic
More brittle and less ductile than mild steel
High Carbon Steel : Uses
 In reinforcing prestressed concrete
structures
Types of Steel:
(according to elements used)
 Steels that owe their properties due to
carbon are called Carbon Steels
 Steels with properties due to elements
other than carbon are termed as Alloy
Steels
Alloy Steels
 The elements that impart distinctive characteristics to
steel are added to iron to produce an alloy steel
named after the element added
 Prepared to increase strength, hardness, toughness,
resistance to corrosion and thermal and electrical
conductivities

Divided into two categories:

 Ferrous alloys ( chromium, nickel, vanadium,
tungsten, molybdenum and manganese )
 Non Ferrous alloys
Stainless steel (not used as str. Materials)

Stainless steel is a metal alloy, made up of steel

mixed with elements such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, silicon, aluminum, and carbon.
Iron mixed with carbon to produce steel is the main
component of stainless steel

Hard and strong substance

Good conductor of heat and electricity
Ductile, Magnetic,
Retains its strength and cutting edge regardless of
temperature.
Stress strain curve

Comparison
(a) Grade S275
(b) Grade S355
(c) Alloy steel
 Lecture 1.3

Structural Steel Work

STEEL SECTIONS
 Structural Steel Sections

Structural steel is manufactured in three

basic grades: S275, S355 and S460. Grade
S460 is the strongest, but the lower strength
grade S275 is the most commonly used in
structural applications, for reasons that will
later become apparent. In this classification
system ‘S’ stands for structural and the
number indicates the yield strength of the
material in N/mm2
 Types of Steel Sections
 Rolled and formed sections
 Compound sections
 Built-up sections
 Cold-rolled open sections
Standard sections include:
1. I-Beams
2. H-Columns
3. Joists
4. Angles
5. Channels
6. Tees
 Rolled and formed sections
Rolled and formed sections are produced in steel
mills from steel blooms, beam blanks or coils by
passing them through a series of rollers.
The main sections and their principal properties
and uses are discussed briefly below:

(1) Universal beams:

These are very efficient sections for resisting
bending moment about the major axis.
(2) Universal columns:
These are sections produced primarily to resist axial
load with a high radius of gyration about the minor
axis to prevent buckling in that plane.

(3) Channels:
These are used for beams, bracing members, truss
members and in compound members.
(4) Equal and unequal angles: These are used
for bracing members, truss members and for
purlins, side and sheeting rails.
(5) Structural tees: The sections shown are
produced by cutting a universal beam or column
into two parts. Tees are used for truss members,
ties and light beams.
 (6) Circular, square and rectangular
hollow sections:
 These are mostly produced from hot-rolled coils, and
may be hot-finished or cold-formed.
 The steel tubes are used as columns and
compression members and in some cases it also
acts as a tension member in tubular trusses.
 The steel tubes are efficient structural
sections to be used as compressive members.
 Steel tube sections have equal radius of
gyration in all directions.
 Compound sections
Compound sections are formed by the following
means:
(1) strengthening a rolled section such as a
universal beam by welding on cover plates,
(2) combining two separate rolled sections, as
in the case of the crane girder. The two
members carry loads from separate directions.
(3) connecting two members together to form a
strong combined member.
Compound sections
Built-up sections
Compound sections
 Built-up sections
Built-up sections are made by welding plates
together to form I, H or box members which are
termed plate girders, built-up columns, box
girders or columns, respectively. These
members are used where heavy loads have to
be carried and in the case of plate and box
girders where long spans may be required.
 Cold-rolled open sections
Thin steel plates can be formed into a wide
range of sections by cold rolling.
The most important uses for cold-rolled open
sections in steel structures are for purlins, side
and sheeting rails. Three common sections-
the zed, sigma and lipped channel.
Cold-rolled open sections
Shapes of steel sections
 The cross sectional properties of a steel
member are identified by its shape.
 The various names given to the members of
different shapes are Angles ; T-section; I-
section; Z-section; Channel; H-section and so
on .
 Each shape has its particular use in steel
structures.
ROLLED STEEL SHAPES

ANGLE SECTIONS
ANGLE SECTIONS

 Used especially in the construction of steel

roof trusses and filler joist floors.
 May be of equal or unequal legs.
ANGLE SECTIONS
ROLLED STEEL SHAPES

CHANNELS
CHANNELS
 CHANNELS
 Types:
ROLLED STEEL SHAPES

T-SECTIONS
T-SECTIONS
 T-SECTIONS
 Types:
 ROLLED STEEL SHAPES

I-SECTIONS
I a n d H - SECTION
 I - SECTION
 Types :
SHAPES OF STEEL STRUCTURE

STEELTUBES
 Section properties
For a given member serial size, the section properties are:
(1) the exact section dimensions;
(2) the location of the centroid if the section is
asymmetrical about one or both axes;
(3) area of cross-section;
(4) moments of inertia about various axes;
(5) radii of gyration about various axes;
(6) moduli of section for various axes, both elastic and
plastic.
 Lecture 2

Design Philosophy for Structural Steelwork

Scope of Structural Steel Work

Structural Steel work involves:

1. Estimation of Loads
2. Analysis of the Structural Elements to determine the internal
forces i.e. Bending Moments, Shear and Normal forces
3. Using Information obtained from (2) to design the structure.
Design involves determining appropriate cross sections and
laying down details of Connections.
4. Production of Working Drawings
Design Requirements

1. Safety: The Whole Structure as well as individual

structural members must meet safety requirements as
stipulated in the codes of practice.

2. Performance: The structure must meet all

serviceability requirements. This means all criteria
which can affect the performance of the structure
must be checked and whenever necessary remedial
measures taken before fabrication.
Example: Deflections must be within acceptable limits.
 Design Requirements (cont.)
3. Economy: The design should be economic. It should be
noted that an economic design does not result from finding
the smallest structural size without considering other
factors such as;

i. Difficulties of fabrication & erection

ii. Availability of proposed sections
iii. Available means of Transport
iv. No site welding i.e. Welding has to be done in a
workshop
Design Requirements (cont.)
4 Elegant Appearance: The complete structure as well
as its smallest detail should be Elegant
Limit State Design Method

6
Remember
Designer has to ensure the designed structures are:
1. Fit for their purpose
2. Safe
3. Economical and
4. Elegant

7
Uncertainties affecting the safety of a structure are due to:

uncertainty about loading

uncertainty about material strength and
uncertainty about structural dimensions and behaviour

8
 Uncertainties in service life are due to:

Variability of the loads

Variability of the load distribution through the structure

Characteristic load:
Value of the load, which has an accepted probability of not being
exceeded during the life span of the structure.

9
The Concept of Limit State Design
Limit States are concerned with Structural Safety and
serviceability.
There are 2 Main Groups of Limit states:
1. Ultimate Limit State
2. Serviceability Limit state
Ultimate Limit States
The Ultimate Limit States include:

1. Limit State of Collapse:

e.g.> Rupture of a critical section
> Buckling of a Load bearing member

2. Limit State of Local Damage

e.g. Excessive Buckling of the web
Ultimate Limit States (Cont.)
3. Limit State of Fatigue: This Has to be considered if imposed
load is predominantly cyclic e.g. Loading of a railway bridge.

4. Limit state of Fire Resistance. The following conditions must

be considered:
i. Resistance to Structural Collapse
ii. Resistance to penetration of flames
iii. Resistance to Heat transmission
Ultimate Limit States (Cont.)
5. Limit State of Impact Resistance:
This is to be considered whenever there is a high
probability of shock loading e.g. earthquake loading.
 Serviceability Limit States
These include
1. Limit state of deflection
The Deflections should not impair the appearance or efficiency of
the structure
2. Limit State of Vibrations:
The Vibrations should neither cause discomfort or alarm or
damage nor interfere with the proper function of the structure.
3. Limit State of Durability:
Sometimes it is necessary to take special precautions against
Corrosions
1.4 Partial Safety Factors

Safety factors f and m are used to allow for variations in the

loading, and in the strength of the materials.
1.4 Partial Safety Factors (Cont.)
f : - It is applied to the loads
- It is a product of two factors namely
L and p
- L: Covers the variability of loading
- p : Covers the variability of Structural Performance
- In BS 5950 the load factors (f )are given in Table 2
Partial Safety Factors (Cont.)
m: - It is the material factor
- In BS 5950 it is taken as 1.0 because a suitable
allowance has been made in the design strengths
- Section 3.1.1 BS 5950 covers the design strengths
for the material steel -
- Table 9 BS 5950 gives the Design strengths.
Loading
Guidelines for the load analysis are given in Section 2.2 of
BS 5950

NOTE:
All loads should be considered separately and in such realistic
combinations as to comprise the most critical effects on the
elements and structure as a whole.
Examples of Load Combinations
Load Combination Load Type
Dead Imposed
Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial wind

1. Dead and
1.4 1.0 1.6 0 -
imposed
2. Dead and
1.4 1.0 - - 1.4
wind
3. Dead and
Wind and 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Imposed
 Lecture 3

DESIGN OF STEEL MEMBERS

Design of Tension Members

 Introduction
Tension members occur as principal structural
members in bridges, roof trusses,
transimission towers, wind bracing systems
etc.
They also occur as secondary members as
ties to stiffen a trussed floor system or to
provide intermediate support for a wall
cladding system.
 Introduction
• Applications Purlin

Sag Rod

Rafter
Top chord

Tie
Roof Truss Roof Purlin System

Suspenders

Bracings

Braced Frame Suspended Building

Tension Members in Buildings

3
Tension members may consists of a single structural section or
they may be built-up from a number of of structural sections.

In general, the use of a single section is more economical than

built-up sections. However, built-up members may be required
when:-

(a) a tensile capacity of single rolled section is not sufficient;

(b) the slenderness does not provide sufficient rigidity
(c) the effect of bending combined with the tensile
behaviour requires a larger lateral stifness
(d) unusual or complexity in connection details
(e) esthetics control
Introduction…

• Cross Sections used

Single & Double Angles Channel I-Section

(Joist / Beam)

Rod Cable

Built-up Sections
6 Workshop on IS 800 : 2007, BHEL, New Delhi, 29 Dec 2008 – 02 Jan 2009
Design considerations
The design of tension members is
generally straightforward. Tension
capacity is determined by:
a) Material properties
b) The presence of holes
c) Connection eccentricity
 Behaviour in Tension
• Plate σ
fu

fy

0 ε
2 possible Limit States
Yielding
Ultimate (Rupture)

Important:
Yielding of Gross Area

8
Behaviour in Tension…

• Plate with Hole σ

fu

fy

0 ε

Important: 2 possible Limit States

Yielding
Rupture of Net Area
Ultimate (Rupture)

fy fu

Elastic Elasto-Plastic Plastic

9
Table 9
BS5950
 3.1.1 AXIALLY LOADED TENSION MEMBERS

 Guidelines for design of these members are given in

Section 4.6 of BS5950
 The Tension Capacity is given by:

Pt  Ae  p y
Where:
Ae = Sum of the effective net areas ae of all elements
of the cross-section as determined from 3.4.3 but not
more than 12. times the total net area
py= Design strength as determined from 3.1.1
 The Design Strength (3.1.1)
 Table 9 of BS 5950-1:2000
Table 9: Design strength py
Steel Grade Thickness, Sections, Plates
Less than or and Hollow
Equal to Sections
mm N/mm2
16 275
S275 40 265
63 255
80 245
Effects of tension in steel members
Effects of tension in steel members
Effects of tension in steel members
The Effective Net Area

 In 3.4.3 The effective net area (Ae ) of each

element with bolt holes is given by:
Ae = Ke x Net area but < gross Area where Ke
is a factor determined by the grade of the
steel
 The Net area is the gross area less
deductions for fastener holes.
 Deductions for holes are covered in 3.4.4
 Net Area
• Plate with Holes
t

Courtesy:: Georgia Inst Tech

d b

Net Area An = (b – d)  t

d
g b

Net Area An = (b – 2d)  t

17
Net Area…

• Three types of Bolt Holes (Table 19, pp 73)

– Standard clearance hole
– Over size hole
– Slotted hole
• Short
• Long

18

18 20 22 56

Standard Oversized Short-slotted Long-slotted

(STD) (OVS) (SSL) (LSL)

Different holes for 16mm (nominal) diameter bolt

18
 Effective area in tension
 Where there are no holes in the member and
there is no reduction in the cross-sectional
area at connections, the effective area, Ae, is
the gross area of the section, Ag.

 Where there are holes in a member, the

cross-sectional area will be reduced and
allowance must be made for this in design.
The effective net area ae is given by:
Ae = Ke × an , but ≤ ag Cl. 3.4.3
where:
Ke = 1.2 for S275 steel
Ke = 1.1 for S355 steel
Ke = 1.0 for S460 steel
an is the net area of the element
ag is the gross area of the element
 3.2 Tension capacity
effects of eccentricity

Angles, channels or T-sections subject to tension with

moments caused by eccentric end connections can be
designed as ‘simple tension members’ using the
provisions of Clause 4.6.3. Other members subject to
tension and bending should be designed using Clause
4.8.2, see Section 4.4.
The design method of simple tension members used
in BS 5950-1 is to account for the bending moment
by using a reduced tension capacity as given below.
Tension capacity-effects of eccentricity (cont.):

 Single angles, channels and T-Sections Ref. [Link]:

 tension capacity is given by

For Bolted connections: P  p ( Ae 0.5a2 )

t y
For welded connections: P  p ( Ag  0.3a2 )
t y
 Where a2  Ag a1

Ag = Gross sectional area see 3.4.1

a1 = Gross sectional Area of the connected element
 Tension capacity-effects of eccentricity
(cont.):
 Double angles, channels and T-Sections Ref. [Link]:
 tension capacity is given by

For Bolted connections: P  p ( Ae 0.25a2 )

t y
For welded connections: Pt  p y ( Ag  0.15a2 )
 Where a2  Ag a1

Ag = Gross sectional area see 3.4.1

a1 = Gross sectional Area of the connected element
The Net Area. (Ref 3.4.2)

 The Net area is the gross area less

deductions for bolt holes given in 3.4.4.

 Two cases must be considered namely:

1. The Holes not staggered ([Link])
2. Staggered holes ([Link])
Holes Not Staggered ([Link] )

 The Net Area is given by:

Anet  Agross  n  t  
 Where
 n = Maximum no. of holes in a cross section.
 t = Thickness of the member
  = diameter of the hole.
 Staggered Holes (see 3.4.3 )
Where the holes are staggered the area to be
deducted should be the greater of:
a. The deduction for Non staggered Holes
given in [Link]

b. The sum of the sectional areas of a chain of

holes lying on any zig –zag line extending
progressively across the member or
element less an allowance of 0.25 s2t/g for
each gauge space g that it traverses
diagonally where:
 Staggered Holes (see [Link] )
g= the gauge spacing perpendicular to the direction of
direct stress, between the centers of two consecutive
holes in the chain
s= The Staggered pitch, i.e the spacing parallel to the
direction of direct stress between the centers of the
same two holes
t = Thickness of the holed material
 Staggered Holes (see [Link] )

Zig zag line of failure Straight line of Failure )

([Link]) (Section [Link])

F g F
g

s s s
s
Net Area…

• Plate with Holes

t

d
g b

Net Area An = (b – 2d)

d)  t t

d
g b

(b – 2d)  t < An < (b – d)  t

An = ??
p
29
Net Area…

• Plate with Multiple Holes

t

d
g

g b

g An = [b – nd + (p2/4g)]  t

s s s s2/4g
for all inclined parts of the section

– All possible failure paths to be investigated

• Minimum net area to be used in design
– Tensile strength

30
Net Area…

• Punctured Bolt Holes (Cl 3.6.1, pp 17)

– 2 mm excess of actual diameter

d
g

g b

g An = [b – nd + (p2/4g)]  t

p p p p2/4g
for all inclined parts of the section

– All possible failure paths to be investigated

• Minimum net area to be used in design

31
Fig. 3 BS5950: 2000
Fig. 4 BS 5950
Summary of design procedure
 Lecture 4

DESIGN OF COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
 Re-cap
 It should be noted that the actual
buckling load is a function of:

1. The Euler Load appropriate to the

length, support conditions, cross
section and material of the member

2. Initial deformations of the member

  The Critical Stress is given by:
Pcr  2 EI  2 E
 cr   
A AL 2
AL2
I
But

I
 r2 where r  radius of gyration
A
 2E
Therefore  cr  2
 Leff 
 
 r 
 Or
 E
2
Leff
 cr  2 where    Slendernes s ratio
 r

Thus the critical stress in a column is

dependent only on the Young’s
modulus of elasticity and the
slenderness ratio  = (Leff/r)
Because of the phenomenon of buckling, one can
differentiate two types of columns namely:

1. short columns: These are columns, which have

little or no tendency to buckle. A short
column will fail due to material failure
2. slender columns: These are columns, which
are prone to buckle at compressive
stresses that are below the compressive
strength of the material.
 Short and Slender Columns

A Short Column will

fail due to material A Slender Column will
failure fail due to buckling
Measures to prevent buckling of a slender column:

1. Providing lateral restraints

2. Limiting the load which is to be carried by the
column
4. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
(see section 4.7)

 Load carrying capacity of a compression

member is determined by:
1. Slenderness of the member
2. Strength of the Material
4. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
(Cont.)

 The Design Strength is as given in section

3.1.1 and table 9 BS5950

 Slenderness is defined as:

 Le

 Where: Le= effective Length

r
r = radius of gyration
4. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
(Cont.)

 The guidelines for determining the

effective length are given in 4.7.3

 Effective lengths for standard conditions

of restraint are given in table 24 in BS
5950
Table 22 of BS 5950 :Part1 :2000
 Compression Resistance 4.7.4
 The applied compressive force should not exceed
the compression resistance Pc which is given by:

(a) For class 1 plastic, class 2 compact or class 3

semi compact sections: Pc = [Link]

(b) For class 4 slender sections: Pc = [Link]

 Compression Resistance 4.7.4 (cont.)

where:
Aeff is the effective cross sectional area from 3.6
Ag is the gross sectional Area (see 3.4.1)
pc is the compressive Strength (see 4.7.5)
pcs is the value of pc for a reduced slenderness of
(Aeff/Ag)0.5 in which  is based on the radius of
gyration r of the gross section.
 On Classification of cross sections (see 3.5)

 Note that the class of a cross sections determines

compressive strength.
 Classification of cross sections is done in accordance
with section 3.5
 Elements and cross sections are classified as CLASS 1
PLASTIC, CLASS 2 COMPACT, CLASS 3 SEMI
COMPACT or CLASS 4 SLENDER
 Cross sections may be made of elements of different
classes.
 Classification of cross sections (see 3.5.2)

 Classification is based on Table 11 or Table 12 and

Figure 5 of the code:
 CLASS 1 Plastic: All elements subject to compression
comply with the values given in Table 11 or Table
12 for plastic Elements
 CLASS 2 Compact: All elements subject to
compression comply with the values given in Table
11 or Table 12 for Compact Elements
 CLASS 3 Semi compact: All elements subject to
compression comply with the values given in Table
11 or Table 12 for semi compact Elements
Fig. 5: BS5950
Fig. 5: BS5950
Table 11
BS 5950
Table 12
BS 5950
Figure 6
BS 5950
Outstand and Internal Elements
 Outstand Element: one edge is free the other is
attached to an adjacent element
 Internal Element: Both longitudinal Edges are
attached to other elements or longitudinal stiffeners
 The Compressive Strength pc (see 4.7.5)

 Depends on the slenderness  and the design

strength py
 May be established first by reference to tables 23
and Figure 14. The table and the figure indicate
which of the four tables 24(a) to (d) is relevant to
the case.
 For sections fabricated from plate by welding, the
value of py should be reduced by 20N/mm2
Fig.14 BS 5950
Table 23
BS 5950
Table 24
BS 5950
Battened Struts (see 4.7.9)
 It consists of two or more main components
 The maximum slenderness, c of a main
component (based on its minimum radius of
gyration) between end fasteners of adjacent
battens should not exceed 50.
 The slenderness of the battened strut, b
about the axis perpendicular to the plane of
the battens should be calculated from:
Battened Struts (see 4.7.9)

b  m
2
 c
2

 Where m is the ratio LE / r of a whole

member about that axis
c is as defined above
Cased columns (Section 4.14)
Solid concrete casing acts as fire protection for steel
columns and the casing assists in carrying the load
and preventing the column from buckling about the
weak axis.
 General requirements
(1) The steel section is either a single-rolled
or fabricated I- or H-section withequal
flanges. Channels and compound sections
can also be used.
(2) The steel section is not to exceed 1000 ×
500mm2. The dimension 1000mm is in
the direction of the web.
(3) Primary structural connections should be
made to the steel section.
 General requirements
(4) The steel section is unpainted and free
from dirt, grease, rust, scale, etc.
(5) The steel section is encased in concrete of
at least Grade 25, to BS 8110.
(6) The cover on the steel is to be not less
than 50 mm. The corners may be
chamfered.
(7) The concrete extends the full length of the
member and is thoroughly compacted
 General requirements
(8) The casing is reinforced with steel fabric
mesh #D98 per BS 4483 or alternatively
with rebars not less than 5mm diameter
at a maximum spacing of 200mm to form a
cage of closed links and longitudinal bars.
(9) The effective length is not to exceed 40bc
100b2c/dc or 250r, whichever is the least, where
bc is the minimum width of solid casing,
dc is the minimum depth of solid casing,
r is the minimum radius of gyration of the steel
section
 Compression strength (4.14.2)
(1) The radius of gyration about the y–y axis ,
ry should be taken as 0.2bc but not more
than 0.2(B + 150), where B is the overall
width of the steel flange. The radius of
gyration for the x–x axis rx should be
taken as that of the steel section.
(2) The compression resistance Pc is

but not more than the short strut capacity,

where
Ac = the gross sectional area of the concrete,

Ag = the gross area of the steel section,

fcu = characteristic strength of the concrete at

28 days (but not to exceed 40N/mm2

pc = compressive strength of the steel section

determined using rx and ry (py< 355MPa)

py = the design strength of the steel

 Example: cased column
An internal column in a multi-storey building
has an actual length of 4.2m centre-to-centre of
floor beams. The steel section is a 203 × 203
UC 52. Calculate the compression resistance of
the column if it is cased in accordance with
Section 4.14 of BS 5950: Part 1. The steel is
Grade S275 and the concrete Grade 25. The
casing has been made 310mm2.
Section Properties

The properties of the steel

section are:
For the cased section:
ry = 0.2bc
= 0.2 x310 = 62mm
but not more than 0.2(B + 150)
0.2(203.9 + 150)=70.78mm
 Slenderness ratio
Because the column is cased throughout, the effective
length is taken from Table 22 as 0.7 of the actual
length:
Effective length LE = 0.7 × 4200 = 2940mm.
The effective length LE is not to exceed:
40bc = 40 × 310 = 12,400mm
100b2c/dc = 100 × 310 = 3100mm
250r = 250 × 51.6 = 12,900mm

Slenderness, λ = 2940/62 = 47.4

 Compressive strength
The design strength from Table 9, py = 275
N/mm2.
For buckling about y–y,
select curve (c) from Table 23.
Compressive strength from Table 24(c):

pc = 225.2 N/mm2

The gross sectional area of the concrete:

Ac = 310 × 310 = 96,100mm2
 Compressive strength
Compressive resistance of the cased section:
 Compressive strength
This is not to exceed the short strut capacity:

The compression resistance is 2,380.6 kN.

 Lecture 4

3.2 DESIGN OF
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Compression Members
Members in compression have a limit on their
load carrying capacity, known as the squash
load, which is equal to the yield strength
multiplied by the cross-sectional area. Long
slender struts will fail at much lower loads by
elastic buckling. However most practical
compression members have a slenderness
between these two extremes and will fail by a
combination of yielding and buckling.
 Types of compression members

Compression members are one of the basic

structural elements, and are described by the
terms ‘columns’, ‘stanchions’ or ‘struts’, all of
which primarily resist axial COMPRESSION load.
Columns are vertical members supporting
floors, roofs and cranes in buildings.
Though internal columns in buildings are
essentially axially loaded and are designed as
such, most columns are subjected to axial load
and moment.
The term ‘strut’ is often used to describe other
compression members such as those in trusses,
lattice girders or bracing.

Types of compression members

 Compression member sections
Compression members must resist buckling, so they
tend to be stocky with square sections.

Rolled, compound and built-up sections are used for

columns. Universal columns are used in buildings
where axial load predominates, and universal beams
are often used to resist heavy moments that occur in
columns in industrial buildings.

Single angles, double angles, tees, channels and

structural hollow sections are the common sections
used for struts in trusses, lattice girders and bracing.
Compression member sections
Compression member sections
 Loads on compression
members
Axial loading on columns in buildings is due to loads
from roofs, floors and walls transmitted to the
column through beams and to self weight.
Theory of columns

9
 Columns
• Columns are compression members.
• There are various examples of members subjected to
compressive loads.
Various names of compression members as per application:
• Post is a general term applied to a compression member.
• Strut is a compression member whose lateral dimensions are
small compared to it’s length.
• A strut may be horizontal, inclined or vertical and this term is
used in trusses. (Tie is a tension member in a truss)
• But a vertical strut, used in buildings or frames is called
column.
• Columns, pillars and stanchions are vertical
members used in building frames.
[Link] Rao, Associate Professor,
10
Dept. of Civil Engg., SVCE,Sriperumbudir
 Classification of Columns

• [Link] column: Short column fails by crushing (compressive

yielding) of the material.

• 2. Slender column: Slender column fails by buckling or bending.

( geometric or configuration failure)

• 3. Intermediate column: Intermediate column fails by

combined buckling and crushing. (failure due to both material
crushing and geometrical instability)

11
 Slender Columns
When a slender member is subjected t o an axial
compressive load, it may fail by a condition called buckling.
Buckling is a geometric instability in which the lateral
displacement of the axial member can suddenly become very
large

.
- - - : Orignal shape

: Buckled shape

12
Buckled steel columns

13
 Buckling examples of structural members

• 1. Building columns that transfer loads to the ground

•
• 2. Truss members in compression

• 3. Machine elements

• 4. Submarine hulls subjected to water pressure

14
 Equilibrium States

Three types of equilibrium:

1. Stable equilibrium

2. Unstable equilibrium

3. Neutral equilibrium

15
 Buckling Mechanism
1. Stable equilibrium:
If the load P is sufficiently small, when the force F is removed,
the column will go back to its original straight condition .

Elasticity of the column isthe

Gravity is the restoring force restoring force.
16
 Buckling Mechanism (contd…)
2. Neutral equilibrium:
When the column carries critical load � � � (Increased value of the
load P) and a lateral force Fis applied and removed, the column
will remain in the slightly deflected position.

Deflection amount depends Elastic restoring force is sufficient

on magnitude of force. to prevent excessive deflection.
17
 Buckling Mechanism (contd…)
3. Unstable equilibrium:
When the column carries a load which is more than critical load � � �
(Increased value of the load P) and a lateral force F is applied and
removed, the column will bend considerably and it grows into
excessively large deflection.

Even small disturbance Elastic restoring force is insufficient

causes unstable. to prevent excessive deflection.
18
 Buckling Mechanism (contd…)

• Conclusion:
Depending on the magnitude of force P, either
column remains in straight position or in slight
bent position or collapse due to crack extension.

19
 Euler’s long column theory

• The direct stress � 0 due to direct load is very small

compared to bending stress � � due to buckling in long
column.

• Euler derived an equation, for the buckling load of long

column based on bending stress (neglecting the effect of
direct stress).

• Buckling load cannot be used in short column.

20
 Assumptions in the Euler’s theory
1. The column is initially straight.
2. The cross section is uniform throughout.
3. The ends of the column are frictionless.

4. The material is homogeneous and isotropic.

5. The self weight of the column is neglected.

6. The line of thrust coincides exactly with the axis of the column.
7. The shortening of column due to axial compression isnegligible.
8. The column failure occurs due to buckling only.

21
Cases of long columns based on end conditions

1. Both end pinned

2. Both ends fixed

3. One end fixed and the other end pinned

4. One end fixed and the other end free

22
 Sign conventions for bending moments

Convexity towards centre line, Concavity towards centre line,

� � is +ve � � is -ve

23
 End conditions of column
Three important end conditions based on support types.

24
 Case 1. Both ends hinged
• Consider a column AB of length � with its both
ends free to rotate around frictionless pins
and carrying a critical load P.

• As a result of critical loading, let the column

deflect into a buckled shape A X1 � as shown
in the figure.

• Prior to this critical load, the column is

straight.

• Smallest force at which buckled shape is P

possible is known as critical force.

Case 1. Both ends hinged (contd…)

26
Case 1. Both ends hinged (contd…)

27
Case 1. Both ends hinged (contd…)

28
Case 1. Both ends hinged (contd…)

29
2. Both ends fixed

30
2. Both ends fixed (contd…)

31
2. Both ends fixed (contd…)

32
2. Both ends fixed (contd…)

33
2. Both ends fixed (contd…)

34
 3. One end fixed and other hinged

� � = Fixed end moment at A and

H= Horizontal reaction at A and Bas shown

in Figure.

Moment at Xdue to critical load P,

� = −� � + � (� − � )

35
3. One end fixed and other hinged (contd…)

36
3. One end fixed and other hinged (contd…)

37
3. One end fixed and other hinged (contd…)

38
3. One end fixed and other hinged (contd…)

39
3. One end fixed and other hinged (contd…)

40
4. One end fixed, other free

41
4. One end fixed, other free (contd…)

42
4. One end fixed, other free (contd…)

43
4. One end fixed, other free (contd…)

44
4. One end fixed, other free (contd…)

45
Equivalent Length of a column

46
Equivalent length (Effective Length)

47
 Effective Length

Physically, the effective length is the distance between

points on the buckled column where the moment goes to
zero, i.e., where the column is effectively pinned.
Considering the deflected shape, the moment is zero
where the curvature is zero (from beam theory).

Zero curvature corresponds to an inflection point in the

deflected shape (where the curvature changes sign).

48
Effective length for columns with common end
conditions

0.7
� � = 0.5 �
� �
2
�

49
Effective length for columns with common end
conditions

50
Effective length for columns with common end
conditions

51
Critical stress of a column

52
Critical stress of a column(contd…)

53
Critical stress of a column(contd…)

54
 Limitations of Euler’s formula

• 1. It is applicable to an ideal strut only and in practice,

there is always crookedness in the column and the load
applied may not be exactly co-axial.

• 2. It takes no account of direct stress. It means that it

may give a buckling load for struts, far in excess of load
which they can be withstand under direct
compression.

55
 Problems

Problem 1.
A hollow circular column of internal diameter 20 mm
and external diameter 40 mm has a total length of 5m.
One end of the column is fixed and the other end is
hinged. Find out the crippling stress of the column if �
= 2 × 105 N/mm2. Also findout the shortest length of this
column for which Euler’s formula is valid taking the yield
stress equal to 275 N/mm2 .

56
 Problems
Solution.

57
 Problems
Solution.

58
 Problems

Problem 2.
A T-section 150 mm x 120 mm x 20 mm is used as a
strut of 4 m long with hinged at its both ends. Calculate
the crippling load if modulus of elasticity for the
material be 2.0 x 105 N/mm2.

59
 Problems
Problem figure:
150 mm
20 mm

120 mm

20 mm

60
 Problems
• Solution :

61
 Problems
Solution (contd…)
150 mm

� =34 20 mm
mm
120 mm

20 mm

62
 Problems
150 mm
Solution (contd…) Y
� =34 20 mm
mm X X 120 mm
20 mm

63
 Problems
Solution (contd…)

= 702.2 kN
64
 Problems

• Problem 3:
• Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel
column to that of a hollow of the same cross-
sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow
column is ¾ of the external diameter. Both the
column have the same length and are pinned at
both ends.

65
 Problems

• Solution:

66
 Problems
Solution (contd…):

67
 Problems
Solution (contd…):

68
 Problems (contd…)

Solution (contd…)

69
 LECTURE 5

DESIGN OF BENDING MEMBERS

 5.1 Design of Beams
Beams span between supports to carry lateral
loads which are resisted by bending and shear.
However, deflections and local stresses are
also important.
Beams may be cantilevered, simply supported,
fixed ended or continuous, as shown in Figure
below. The main uses of beams are to support
floors and columns, carry roof sheeting as
purlins and side cladding as sheeting rails.
Types of beams
Beam sections
Classification of beam cross-sections (3.5)

Beam cross-sections are classified as follows in

accordance with their behaviour in bending:

Class 1 Plastic cross-section: This can

develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation
capacity to permit redistribution of moments in
the structure. Only class I sections can be used
for plastic design.
Class 2 Compact cross-section: This can
develop the plastic moment capacity, but local
buckling prevents rotation at constant moment.

Class 3 Semi-compact cross-section: The

stress in the extreme fibres should be limited to
the yield stress because local buckling prevents
development of the plastic moment capacity.
Class 4 Slender cross-section: Premature
buckling occurs before yield is reached.
Elements are generally of uniform thickness,
but, if tapered, the average thickness is used.

Elements are classified as plastic, compact or

semi-compact if they meet limits given in
Tables 11 and 12 in association with Figures 5
and 6 of the code.
 5.2 Design principle
 Members in Bending are covered in section 4.2 BS
5950-1:2000

Span
In Clause [Link] of BS 5950, the span of a beam is
defined as the distance between effective points of
support. In beam/column building frames, the
difference between these support centres and the
column centres is so small that it is customary to take
the span as the distance between column centres
when calculating moments, shears and deflections.
 Beam loads
Types of beam loads are:
(1) concentrated loads from secondary beams and
columns;
(2) distributed loads from self-weight and floor slabs.
The loads are further classified into:
(1) dead loads from self weight, slabs, finishes, etc.
(2) imposed loads from people, fittings, snow on roofs,
etc.
(3) wind loads, mainly on purlins and sheeting rails.
 General
 All Members subject to bending should meet the conditions
given in section [Link] i.e

a) At critical Points the combination of maximum moment and co-existent

shear, and the combination of maximum shear and co-existent moment
should be checked.
b) The deflection criteria given in 2.5.2 of the code should be taken into
account.
c) Unless the member is fully restrained against lateral-torsional buckling
as indicated in 4.2.2, its resistance to lateral –torsional buckling should
be checked in accordance with 4.3
d) For Class 4 slender sections, local buckling should be taken into
account as given in 3.6
e) When the load or reactions are applied through the flange to the web the
conditions of 4.5 for bearing and buckling should be met
Table 8 BS 5950
 Lateral-torsional buckling
 If an I section is subject to vertical loading that can
move laterally with the beam, the imperfections of
the beam mean it will tend to distort. Due to the
bending action, the upper flange is in compression
and acts like a strut. Being free to move, the
compression flange will tend to buckle sideways
dragging a reluctant tension flange behind it. The
tension flange resists this sideways movement and
therefore, as the beam buckles, the section also
twists, with the web no longer vertical. This action is
known as lateral-torsional buckling.
Fully restrained beams
 Lateral-torsional buckling will be inhibited by the
provision of lateral restraints to the compression
flange. If the flange is restrained at intervals,
lateral torsional buckling may occur between the
restraints and this must be checked.
 If this restraint is continuous, the beam is fully
restrained and lateral-torsional buckling will not
occur.
 Full (continuous) lateral restraint is provided by:

(i) in-situ and precast flooring or composite decking,

provided that the flooring is supported directly on
the top flange or is cast around it.

(ii) timber flooring, if the joists are fixed by cleats,

bolts or other method providing a positive
connection.

(iii) steel plate flooring, if it is bolted or welded at

closely spaced intervals
 5.3 Moment and shear capacities
Design of Laterally Restrained Members in Bending

5.3.1 Shear Capacity: (section 4.2.3)

The Shear Force, Fv , should not be greater

than the Shear Capacity Pv given by

Pv = 0.6pyAv

In which Av is the shear Area taken as follows

See 4.2.3: BS 5950-1:2000
A is the area of the cross section
Ao is the area of the rectilinear element of the
cross section which has the largest dimension
in the direction parallel to the shear force
B is the overall breadth
D is the overall depth

d is the depth of the web

t is the web thickness

In CHS and RHS sections the shear areas should

be assumed to be located adjacent to the neutral
axis
5.3.2 Moment Capacity: (section 4.2.5 BS 5950)

 The Moment capacity should be determined from

the following section of BS 5950-1:2000: [Link],
[Link] & [Link], which allow for effects of
coexisting shear

 Effects of holes should be allowed for as detailed

in [Link] of the code
 [Link] Low Shear ( Fv ≤ 0.6Pv ): see [Link] BS5950

Where the shear Force Fv ≤ 0.6Pv The moment

capacity is given by the following table
Class of section Moment Capacity (Mc )
(in accordance with 3.5.2)
Class 1 plastic or Mc = py S ≤1.2 py Z
Class 2 Compact sections
Class 3 Semi-compact M c = py Z
sections or alternatively Mc = py Seff
Class 4 Slender cross Mc = py Zeff
sections
 Where
S is the plastic Modulus
Seff is the effective plastic Modulus see 3.5.6 Bs 5950
Z is the section Modulus
Zeff is the effective section modulus see 3.6.2
 [Link] High Shear, Notched Ends and Bolt Holes

 Moment Capacity at a section with Fv > 0.6Pv

Should be determine in accordance with [Link] of BS 5950
 At Notched ends of I, H or Channel section members the
Moment Capacity Mc should be determined in accordance
with [Link] of BS 5950
 Allowances for bolt holes should be in accordance with
[Link] of BS 5950
 5.4 Determination of Plastic Modulus of a Cross
Section
 Consider a member subjected to bending:

 If the Bending Moment is small the stress and

strain vary linearly across the section (fig b).
When the moment is increased, yield stress is
attained in the top fiber (fig c) and with further
increase the yield stress is reached in the
bottom fiber as well. (fig d). If the bending
moment continues to increase, yield will spread
from outer fibers inward until the two zones of
yield meet. (fig f ). The cross section is said to
be fully plastic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f)
 The resultant of Compressive stresses acting on
the full plastic section is given by
 Fc=Acσy where Ac= area under compression and
σy is the yield stress.
From Mechanics Fc must go through the centroid of the
area under compression.
 Similarly the resultant of the tensile stresses is given by
 Ft=Atσy where At= area under tension and σy is the
yield stress.
Again from Mechanics Ft must go through centroid of the
area under tension.
 Fc = Acσy

la

Ft = Atσy
 Equilibrium requirements in horizontal
direction gives:
 Fc=Ft or Acσy =Atσy
 i.e. Ac = At
 But Ac + At =A ( the cross Sectional Area)
 Therefore Ac = At = A/2
 Taking moments about the centrod of the tensile
stress gives

A
M pl  Ac  y  la    y  la
2
Where la is the distance between the centroid of the
upper half and the centroid of the lower half of the
cross section .
A
The quantity  la is called the PLASTIC
2
MODULUS of the cross section
Worked Example

Design a simply supported beam carrying a

concrete floor slab over a span of 5.0 m in
grade S275 steel. The unfactored dead load,
which includes an allowance for self weight,
is 14kN/m, and the unfactored imposed load
is 19 kN/m.
Solution
 Design Load
For ultimate load combination 1 the factored
load is,
1.4 × 14 + 1.6 × 19 = 50 kN/m

 Choice of section
Maximum moment = wL2/8 = 50 × 5 2 / 8 =
156 kNm
As the beam is fully restrained (due to the
presence of the floor slab) the required moment
capacity is Sx py assuming that the section is at
least Class 2 compact, given that most UB sections
are at least Class 2.
Assuming that the maximum thickness is 16mm,
py = 275 N/mm2

Therefore Srequired = 156 × 106 /275 × 10–3 = 568 cm3

The lightest rolled section to satisfy this criterion is a

356 x 127 x 39 UB.

The plastic modulus Sx = 659 cm3.

Section Classification (Table 11)
 Section classification
Flange thickness T = 10.7 mm, which is less
than 16mm, therefore py is 275 N/mm2 and
e = 1.00.

Consider the flange:

From section tables b/T = 5.89.
5.89 < 9e,
therefore classification is Class 1 Plastic.
Consider web.
From section tables d/t = 47.2.
47.2 < 80e,
therefore classification is Class 1 plastic.

Therefore, the section as a whole is Class 1

plastic.
Shear capacity check
Maximum shear force Fv is
wL/2 = 50 × 5 / 2 = 125 kN
From section tables, D = 353.4 mm t = 6.6 mm
Shear capacity, Pv = 0.6 py Av = 0.6 py t D
= 0.6 × 275 × 6.6 × 353.4 / 103 = 385 kN
0.6 Pv = 0.6 × 385 = 231 kN > Fv (=125 kN)
therefore the section is under ‘low shear’.
  Moment capacity
As the section is Class 1 plastic, and is under low
shear, the moment capacity Mc is given by
Mc = Sx py
= 659 × 103 × 275 / 106
= 181 kNm >156 kNm
 Deflection control
Ufactored imposed load = wi = 19 kN/m
Max deflection = 5wi L4/ 384EI
=(5 × 19 × 5000 4) / (384 × 205 × 103 × 10170 10 4 )
= 7.4 mm
Deflection control (Table 8)

Allowable deflection = L/ 360

= 5000/360 = 13.9 mm > 7.4 mm …….. O.K
 Lecture 5

BEAMS SUBJECTED TO HIGH SHEAR LOAD

When the shear load is high, i.e. Fv > 0.6Pv, the moment-carrying
capacity of the section is reduced. This is because the web
cannot take the full tensile or compressive stress associated with
the bending moment as well as a sustained substantial shear
stress due to the shear force. Thus, according to clause [Link]
of BS 5950, the moment capacity of UB and UC sections, Mc,
should be calculated as follows:
For class 1 plastic and compact sections;
Mc = py(S − ρSv)

For class 3 semi-compact sections

Mc = py(S − ρSv/1.5) or alternatively

Mc = py(Seff − ρSv)

For class 4 slender sections

Mc = py(Zeff − ρSv/1.5)
where ρ = [2(Fv /Pv) − 1]2 and Sv for sections with equal flanges,
is the plastic modulus of the shear area of section equal to tD2/4.
The other symbols are as previously defined in section 4.8.6.

Note the effect of the ρ factor is to reduce the moment-carrying

capacity of the web as the shear load rises from 50 to 100% of
the web’s shear capacity. However, the resulting reduction in
moment capacity is negligible when Fv < 0.6Pv.
Worked example
A proposed cantilever beam 1 m long is to be built into a concrete
wall as shown in Fig. below. It supports characteristic dead and
imposed loading of 450kN/m and 270kN/m respectively. Select a
suitable UB section in S275 steel to satisfy bending and shear
criteria only.
Solution
Load analysis
W = (450 × 1.4) + (270 × 1.6) = 1062 kN/m

Internal actions
• Shear force Fv at A is = 1062kN/m x 1m = 1062kN

• Max moment at A =Wl2/2 = 1062/2 = 531kNm

Initial Section Selection

Assume py = 275 N/mm2
 Try 533 × 210 × 82 UB: Sx = 2060 cm3 , T =13.2mm
t = 9.6mm, b/T = 7.91, d/t =49.6

Section classification (Table 11)

Since b/T = 7.91 < (9e= 9) ………………………… plastic
d/t =49.6 < (80e= 80) ………………………… plastic
Shear capacity check
Pv = 0.6pytD = 0.6 × 275 × 9.6 × 528.3

= 837 × 10-3 N = 837 kN < 1062 kN ………… Not OK

In this case, because the length of the cantilever is so short, the
selection of section will be determined from the shear strength,
which is more critical than bending.

Try a new section:

610 × 229 × 113 UB: Sx = 3280cm3 , t = 11.2mm,

T = 17.3mm, b/T = 6.60, d/t =49.3

Since T > 16mm, py = 265N/mm2 and the section is plastic

Pv = 0.6 × 265 × 607.3 × 11.2

= 1081 kN ……………………. OK but high shear load
Note:

- If Fv/Pv > 1.0, capacity is inadequate

- If Fv/Pv > 0.60, the plastic moment of resistance is reduced in accordance

with [Link]

- If Fv/Pv ≤ 0.60, the capacity is o.k

where Pv = 0.6pytD

In simply supported beams subjected to uniformly distributed loads where

shear force is zero at the center, the point of maximum bending moment.
Mc is obtained from Mc = pySx and thus no reduction in moment capacity.
Fv/Pv = 1062/1081 = 0.98 > 0.6 …….. High shear load (cl. [Link] )
Moment Capacity
Mc = py(S − ρSv)
But ρ = [2(Fv /Pv) − 1]2 = [2(1062/1081) − 1]2 = 0.93

Mc = 265[(3280 × 103 − 0.93(11.2 × 607.32/4)]

= 615kNm

≤ 1.2pyZ = 1.2 × 265 × 2870 × 103

= 915.8 kNm > 615kNm and of course > Mx (531kNm) …OK

The section is satisfactory

 Lecture 5-3
Compound beams
Design considerations
A compound beam consisting of two equal flange plates welded
to a universal beam is shown in Figure below:

Compound beams fabricated by welding

Section classification
Compound sections are classified into plastic, compact, semi-compact
and slender in the same way as discussed for universal beams in Section
4.3. However, the compound beam is treated as a section built up by
welding.

The limiting proportions from Table 11 of BS 5950-1: 2000 for such

sections are shown in Figure 6 of the code. The manner in which the
checks are to be applied set out in Section 3.5.3 of the code is as follows:
(1) Whole flange consisting of flange plate and universal beam flange is
checked using b1/T, where b1 is the total outstand of the
compound beam flange and T the thickness of the original
universal beam flange.

(2) The outstand b2 of the flange plate from the universal beam flange is
checked using b2/Tf ,where Tf is the thickness of the flange
plate.

(3) The width/thickness ratio of the flange plate between welds b3/Tf is
checked, where b3 is the internal width of the universal beam flange.

(4) The universal beam flange itself and the web must also be checked
as set out in Section 4.3.
 Moment capacity

The area of flange plates to be added to a given universal beam to

increase the strength by a required amount may be determined as
follows. This applies to a restrained beam (see figure below).

Total plastic modulus required:

Sx = M/py

where M is the applied factored

moment.
If SUB is the plastic modulus for the universal beam, the additional
plastic modulus required is:

Sax = Sx − SUB = 2BTf(D + Tf )/2

where B × Tf is the flange area and D is the depth of universal beam.

Suitable dimensions for the flange plates can be quickly established. If

the beam is unrestrained, successive trials will be required.

Curtailment of flange plates

For a restrained beam with a uniform load the theoretical cut-off points
for the flange plates can be determined as follows (see Figure below)
 Curtailment of flange plates

The moment capacity of the universal beam:

MUB = pySUB ≤ 1.2pyZUB

where ZUB is the elastic modulus for the universal beam.

Equate MUB to the moment at P a distance x from the support

wLx/2 − wx2/2 = MUB

where w is the factored uniform load and L the span of the beam.
The above equation gives the value of x which is the distance to
the theoretical cut-off point.

The flange plate should be carried beyond the theoretical cut-off

point so that the weld on the extension can develop the load in
the plate at the theoretical cut-off.
Web
The universal beam web must be checked for shear. It must also
be checked for buckling and crushing if the beam is supported on
a bracket or column or if a point load is applied to the top flange.

Flange plates to universal beam welds

The fillet welds between the flange
plates and universal beam are
designed to resist horizontal shear
using elastic theory (see Figure )

Flange weld:
 Horizontal shear in each fillet weld

where Fv is the factored shear and Ix is

the moment of inertia about x–x axis.
The other terms have been defined
above.

The leg length can be

selected from Table shown.

In some cases a very small

fillet weld is required, but the
minimum recommended size
of 6mm should be used
Strength of fillet weld (kN/mm run)
 5.4. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
5.4.1 General
Compression flange of a member in bending
acts like a column and can buckle sideways if
it is not restrained laterally.

The Load which can cause buckling of the

compression flange can be much less than the
one which will cause an Mmax equal to the
moment capacity of the beam. This effect is
known as LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
 According to 4.3.1 BS5950-1:2000 if the
compression flange of a beam is not provided
with full lateral restraints as described in 4.2.2
of the code, then in addition to satisfying
4.2 (e.g. Fv≤Pv, Mmax≤Mc etc.) , its resistance
to lateral torsional buckling should be checked
as detailed in sections 4.3 of BS 5950-
1:2000.
 5.4.2 Factors that influence the resistance to
lateral torsional Buckling

1. The Unrestrained Length: Lateral

Buckling is prevented by props provided
at intermediate points between
supports.
 5.4.2 Factors that influence the resistance to
lateral torsional Buckling (cont.)

2. The End Conditions: Rotational restraints in

Plan helps prevent lateral torsional buckling

Partially Restrained Both Flanges free

against Rotation in Plan to Rotate in Plan
 5.4.2 Factors that influence the resistance to
lateral torsional Buckling (cont.)

3. Section Type: Sections with greater lateral bending

stiffness and torsional stiffness have greater
resistance to lateral torsional buckling
4. Lateral restraint to the tension flange increases
lateral torsional buckling resistance.
5. The way the loads are applied to the beam and the
shape of the bending moment between restraints.
 5.4.3 To be Observed when Checking
Resistance to Lateral Torsional Buckling.
1) Intermediate restraints: If a member under bending
needs lateral restraints within its length in order to
develop the required buckling resistance moment,
the restraints must meet the requirements of
section 4.3.2 BS 5950.
2) Destabilizing Load: The destabilizing load condition
is taken when a load is applied to the top flange of
a beam or a cantilever, and both the load and the
flange are free to deflect laterally. (see section 4.3.4
BS5950-1:2000)
3) The Effective length for lateral-torsional buckling:
This should be determined in accordance with 4.3.5
BS 5950-1:2000
 5.4.4 Effective Length for Lateral Torsional
Buckling (LE)

Type of Beam Determination of LE

1 Simple Beam without intermediate Use table 13 with LLT = The Span
lateral restraints [Link] For More details See [Link]
2 Beams with intermediate lateral Normal loading LE=LLT
restraints [Link] Destabilizing Load LE=1.2LLT
LLT=Length of relevant segment
For More details See [Link]
3 Beams with double curvature [Link] Refer section [Link]
4 Cantilevers without intermediate Use Table 14: L=Length of Cantilever
Restraints [Link] For More details see [Link]
5 Cantilevers with intermediate Refer section [Link]
restraints [Link]
 Table 14 BS 1590

Continued overleaf
Table 14 BS 1590 (cont.)
Table 14 BS 1590 (cont.)
 5.4.5 Resistance to lateral-torsional buckling
Case Checking Lateral-
torsional Buckling
 Bending about minor axis
Mb=Mc
 CHS, square RHS or Circular or square solid bars
 RHS, unless LE/ry exceeeds the limiting value in i.e. they is no need
table 15 for the relevant value of D/B to check Lateral-
 I, H, channel or box sections if LT does not torsional buckling
exceed L0 see [Link]
I, H, Channel or box section members with equal
flanges and uniform cross section
[Link]
I-, H-,or box sections with unequal flanges but with
uniform cross section
[Link]

Hot rolled angles

4.3.8
Table 15: Limiting value of LE/ry for RHS
(From BS 5950-1:2000)
 5.4.6 I-, H-, Channel or box section members with
equal flanges

• In each segment of length L between

adjacent restraints
Mb
Mx  and M x  M cx
mLT
Where
Mb= Buckling resistance Moment see [Link]
Mcx = Major axis moment capacity of the cross section see 4.2.5
Mx = Maximum major axis moment in the segment
mLT= equivalent uniform moment factor see [Link]
 [Link] The equivalent uniform moment
factor (see [Link])

• For Normal loading condition, the

equivalent uniform moment factor (mLT) can
be obtained from Table18.

• For Destabilizing loading condition mLT = 1

 Loading Conditions

Destabilizing Load Normal Load

Continued overleaf
[Link] Determination of The Buckling Resistance
Moment (Mb)

Case Relevant Sections of BS 5950

1) I-, H- or Channel Use EITHER the simple method given in 4.3.7
sections with OR
equal flanges The general method given in [Link] (c)
2) Single Angles Use 4.3.8
3) Generally except Use [Link] (c)
as given in 1)
and 2) above
[Link] The Simple Method of Determining of The Buckling
Resistance Moment (Mb) (see 4.3.7)

• The Method is applicable to ROLLED I-, H-, or Channel

sections with equal flanges
• The method is simple but more conservative.
• With this method the buckling resistance moment is
determined using the bending strength pb obtained from

Table 20 for the relevant values of

W 0.5 LE and
D
ry T

As follows:
• For class 1 plastic or Class 2 compact cross section

M b  pb S x
• For class 3 semi- compact cross section

M b  pb Z x
Where:
D = Depth of the cross section
LE = Effective length from 4.3.5
Sx = Plastic Modulus about the major axis
T = The flange thickness
Zx = section Modulus about the major axis
βW = Ratio specified in [Link]
Table 20- Bending Strength pb(N/mm2 ) for rolled sections with equal flanges
Table 20- Bending Strength pb(N/mm2 ) for rolled sections with equal flanges
The Ratio βW (see [Link])
 [Link] The General Method of Determining of The Buckling
Resistance Moment (Mb) (see [Link] (c) )

• For class 1 plastic or Class 2 compact cross section

M b  pb S x
• For class 3 semi- compact cross section
M b  pb Z x OR alternatively
M b  pb S x ,eff
• For class 4 slender cross section
M b  pb Z x ,eff

Where: pb = Bending strength from [Link]

Sx = Plastic Modulus about the major axis
Sx,eff = effective Plastic Modulus about the major axis see 3.5.6

Zx = section Modulus about the major axis

Zx,eff = effective section Modulus about the major axis se 3.6.2
 [Link] The Bending Strength pb (see [Link])

• To get the bending strength one must calculate

first the equivalent slenderness LT using section
[Link] of the code.
• Thereafter the bending strength pb for the
relevant values of LT and py can be obtained
from table 16 for rolled sections or Table 17 for
welded sections.
• If LT is not more than the limiting slenderness
L0 for the relevant design strength given at the
foot of table 16 and Table 17, then pb should be
taken as equal py and no allowance need be
made for lateral-torsional buckling
 [Link] The Equivalent Slenderness Ratio LT (see [Link])

• The Equivalent Slenderness Ratio LT is obtained as follows

Case Determination of LT

I- or H- section member See [Link] (a)
LE
LT  u W in which  
ry
LE= effective length from 4.3.5
u = buckling parameter see [Link]
βW = ratio defined in [Link]
 = slenderness factor see [Link]
Channel section member See [Link] (b)

Box section member See [Link] (c)

 [Link] The Slenderness factor  (see [Link])
• The slenderness factor can be obtained from table 19 depending on /x,
where x is torsional index see [Link] , and the flange ratio η.
• Determination of the flange ratio see [Link]
Case Determination of flange ratio η
Sections with equal flanges η = 0.5

Sections with unequal flanges I yc


I yc  I yt
Where:
Iyc = Moment of inertia of compression flange
about the minor axis of the section
Iyt = Moment of inertia of tension flange about
the minor axis of the section
Channel section member See [Link]
Box section member See [Link]
 5.4.6.7Buckling parameter u and the torsional index x (see [Link])
• The buckling parameter u and the torsional index x should be
obtained from either:
• formulae given in B. 2.3 or
• the following pairs of conservative approximations:

Case Determination of flange ratio η

Rolled I-, H-, or channel sections with x =D/T used with u = 0.9
equal flanges
Welded three plate girders with equal x =D/T used with u = 1.0
flanges

Where:
D= Depth of the section
T= Flange thickness
 5.4.7 Buckling resistance moment for single angles
(see 4.3.8)
• The buckling resistance moment of a single
angle with b/t ≤ 15ε subject to bending about
x-x axis may be determined as follows:
- Heel of angle in compression Mb = 0.8pyZx
-Heel of angle in tension
 1350  LE / rv 
M b  py Z x   but M b  0.8 p y Z x
 1625 
Where
LE = Effective length from 4.3.5 based on the length Lv btween restraints
against buckling about the v-v axis
rv = radius of gyration about the v-v axis
Zx = the smaller section modulus about the x-x axis
Example
A beam is required to span 6.0 m and is to carry
three point loads at the quarter points, 1.5 m apart.
Each factored load is 80 kN. The three loads are
applied to the top flange of the beam and they are
free to move laterally. The compression flange is
unrestrained over the entire span. At one end the
compression flange has partial torsional restraint.
At the other end both flanges are not restrained to
any reliable degree against rotation on plan. Select
asuitable UB section in grade S275 steel.
 Solution
(Apply General Method cl. [Link] )
1. Determination of design moment
Maximum moment due to point loads
= 240 kNm
Moment due to self weight.
(Assume self weight is 150 kg/m)
Maximum moment due to self weight
= 1.4 × 150 × 9.81 × 62 / 8 × 103
= 10 kNm
Maximum design moment = 240 + 10 = 250 kNm
 Solution
(Apply Simplified Approach cl. 4.3.7)

2. Determination of shear force

Fv = (80 × 3/2 + 1.4 × 150 × 9.81 × 10-3
= 127 kN

3. Establish effective length, LE (Table 13)

The loading is to the top flange and is free to move
and is therefore destabilizing.

LE = ½ [(1.2LT + 2D) + (1.4D +2D)]

= 1.3D + 2D = 1.3 x 6.0 + 2 x0.6 = 9.00m
Effective length, LE, (Table 13)
4. Select a trial section
Note: In this case the selection is dictated by:-
- Mass should not be greater than 150kg/m
- Overall depth about 600mm
Thus, try 610 x 229 x 140UB
Section properties (from tables):
Sx = 4140cm3, T = 22.1mm, ry = 5.03, u = 0.875
X = 30.6, t = 13.1mm, D = 617.2mm
d/T = 41.8, b/T = 5.21
ᶓ = 1.02
5. Design strength
Since Tmax (22.1mm) > 16mm and steel grade is
S275, py = 265N/mm2

6. Moment capacity check:

Mx ≤ Mcx, Mcx = pySx
= 265 x 4140 x 10-3 = 1097kNm > 250kNm ….. O.K

7. Shear capacity check:

Fv ≤ 0.6Pv,
But 0.6Pv = 0.6 (0.6 x 265 x 13.1 x 617.2) x 10-3
= 771kN > 127kN ……. O.K
8. Section classification
b/T = 5.21 < 9 x 1.02 (plastic)
d/T = 41.8 < 80 x 1.02 (plastic)
Thus, the whole section is plastic
9. Determination of bending resistance, Mb:
 = L /r = 9000/50.3 = 179
E y

 = u v  ( )0.5
LT W 0

Allowing for non-uniform moment (cl. [Link]),

mLT = 1.0
From cl. [Link], W = 1.0 for class1 and 2
Allowing actual values of u and v;
𝟏
u = 0.875 and v = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 (cl. [Link])
𝝀 𝟐 𝟎.𝟓
𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝟏

Now 𝝀 𝑳𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝒙𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝒙𝟏. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟕𝟗 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐

From Table 16, pb = 93N/mm2

Mb = Sxpb = 4140 x 93 x 10-3 = 385kNm

10. Bending strength check

𝑴𝒃
≥ 𝑴𝒙
𝒎𝑳𝑻
𝟑𝟖𝟓𝒌𝑵𝒎
> 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒌𝑵𝒎 … … . 𝑶. 𝑲
𝟏. 𝟎𝟎