FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS I

Mechanics
 Mechanics: Long history to be told…

Archimedes Nicolaus Copernicus Johannes Kepler Galileo Galilei Christiaan Huygens Blaise Pascal
(287 BC – 212 BC) (1473-1543) (1571-1630) (1564-1642) (1629-1695) (1623-1662)
Floating bodies Motions of planets Acceleration, principle of inertia Pendulum clock Fluid dynamics

Isaac Newton Leonhard Euler Jean le Rond d'Alembert Joseph-Louis Lagrange Albert Einstein Erwin Schrödinger
(1643-1727) (1707-1783) (1717-1783) (1736-1813) (1879-1955) (1887-1961)
Motion and force Fluid mechanics Fluid mechanics Lagrangian mechanics Relativity theory Quantum mechanics

We are about to go around here

Galileo “And yes, it moves”. Newton and the falling apple! “Happiest though” of Einstein: a falling person feels no gravity. Schrödinger's cat
Mechanics: A moving life around us

Traffic pendulum Water wave Cyclotron motion of ion in magnetic field

Shock absorber/damper

Collision Falcon Heavy rocket launching Atmospheric and oceanic fluid dynamics Planetary motion

What is governing the motion of an object?

Point mass mechanics
When all parts of an object move in the same direction and at the same rate, we can treat the object
as if it were a (point-like) particle. (Point mass)

Point mass is a theoretical object with mass but no physical dimensions

Kinematics: the description of motion without considering its cause.

• Position, velocity, and acceleration in different coordinate systems
• The relationship between distance, displacement, speed and velocity (motion equations)
Dynamics: the study how forces cause motion.
• Newton’s laws of motion: the fundamental principles that govern the relationship between force, mass and acceleration
• Free-body diagrams: a tool to visualize all forces acting on the point mass to correctly derive equations of motion
Kinetics:
• Work and energy: how forces do work on an object, changing its kinetic and potential energy
• Conservation of energy: the total energy of a system remains constant if only conservative forces are acting
Momentum: linear and angular momentum.
CONTENTS Textbooks:
[1] Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday & Resnick, 10th edition
[2] University Physics, Young & Freedman, 15th edition

1. Kinematics: How to describe motions

Chapter 2& 4 (pp . 13 – 39; 62 – 93) [1]; Chapters 1-3 (pp.1-99) [2]

2. Dynamics: Newton’s laws of motion

Chapter 5& 6 (pp . 94 – 148) [1]; Chapter 4 &5 (pp.100-170) [2]

3. Kinetics: Work, kinetic energy, potential energy.

Conservation of energy
Chapter 7 & 8 (pp . 149 – 213) [1]; Chapter 6& 7 (pp. 171-234 ) [2]

4. Circular motion
Attendance/ Attitude 10%; Exercise 10%; Mid-term 30%; Final 50%
Bonus mark will be given to the most active students
1. KINEMATICS: HOW TO DESCRIBE MOTIONS

Motions in one dimension

● Position, displacement and distance
● Velocity and speed
● Acceleration and deceleration
● Motion equations. Graphical analysis of motion
● Free fall under gravity
Motions in two and three dimensions
● Position, displacement and distance
● Velocity and speed
● Acceleration and deceleration
● Projectile motion
Relative motion in different frames
Motions in one dimension: Position, displacement and distance

Consider “point-like” object moving along Ox direction:

+ At t = 0, the object is located at initial position x0
+ At t>0, the object is located at position x
+ At t = T, the object finishes his trajectory and stays at position L

How can we describe this motion?

 Motions in one dimension: Position, displacement and distance

O x0 x1 L
x2

Origin
Ox
t=0 t1 > 0 t2 > 0 t=T
Initial position Instaneous position Final position

The displacement ∆𝒙 of a particle is the change in its position:

x
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
L
• ∆𝑥>0: the particle has moved in the positive direction of the x axis
• ∆𝑥<0: the particle has moved in the negative direction x2

x1
The travelled distance: 𝑠 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 x0
t
0 t0 t1 t2 T
The travelled distance 𝑠 is not always the same with the displacement.
Motions in one dimension: Position, displacement and distance
 Differential calculus was invented in order to
Motions in one dimension: Velocity and speed describe motion, and its first application is to
define the velocity

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time:

∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Average velocity 𝑣 = = Instantaneous velocity 𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Speed is not always the same with velocity: Ratio between infinitesimal distance and infinitesimal time

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠

Average speed: Instantaneous speed: 𝑣 (magnitude of velocity vector)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Remarks:
• The magnitude of velocity ( 𝒗 ) tells us how fast the object moves whereas the sign of velocity tells us in which
direction he moves
• A state of motion is defined once both position (x) and velocity (v) are defined.
• The sign of velocity and displacement are both related to direction of motion. But the sign of position x is only
related to the relative position of the object.
Motions in one dimension: Acceleration and Deceleration

Acceleration is the rate of the change of velocity with time

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Average acceleration 𝑎 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2𝑥
Instantaneous acceleration 𝑎 = lim = =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Acceleration: the velocity is increased with time;

Or acceleration and velocity in the same direction (𝑎. 𝑣 > 0)
Deceleration: the velocity is decreased with time; Deceleration Acceleration
(slower with time) (faster with time)
Or acceleration and velocity in opposite direction (𝑎. 𝑣 < 0)
Motions in one dimension: Motion equations. Graphical analysis of motion
Motion equations: x(t), v(t), a(t), v(x) …

Position versus time plot x(t): how far the object has already moved?
Velocity versus time plot v(t): how fast the object has already moved?
𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑣= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣. 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(0) = න 𝑣. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0

Acceleration versus time plot a (t): how fast the velocity has been changed? and how strong the
object has been pushed/pulled (see in the next chapter on force and motion)
𝑑𝑣 𝑡
𝑎= 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎. 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣(0) = න 𝑎. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0
Remarks:
• The choice of the origin (x=0) and the direction of Ox axis does not change the nature of motion, but important to unify the
description of motion
• The slope of x(t) graph is the instantaneous velocity v(t). The area under v(t) graph is the displacement of the object.
• The slope of v(t) graph is the acceleration a.
Motions in one dimension: Graphical analysis of motion

Sketch graphs x (t) and v(t) to describe the following motions:

1. Body at rest
2. Body moves with uniform velocity of 5 m.s-1 along a straight line (uniform linear motion)
3. Body moves with a constant acceleration a and initial velocity v0 along a straight line (linear
motion with a constant acceleration)
Motions in one dimension: Motion with a constant acceleration

Motion equations 𝑎. 𝑡 2
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 . 𝑡 +
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑆 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥0 2
𝑣0 + 𝑣 . 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎. 𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0 =
2
𝑎. 𝑡 2 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2. 𝑎. 𝑆
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 . 𝑡 + 𝑎. 𝑡 2
2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 −
2

a v x
linear parabolic

Graphical analysis constant

of motion Slope = a Slope = v

v0 x0
t t t
0 0 0
Linear curve Parabolic curve
Motions in one dimension: Elevator cab

t = 0s – 1s: the cab is stationary (at rest)

t = 1s – 3s: the cab is accelerated from rest (initial velocity is zero) and
moves with increasing velocity (acceleration)

t = 3s – 8s: the cab moves with constant velocity (uniform linear motion)

t = 8s – 9s: the cab is decelerated and moves with decreasing velocity

(deceleration)

t > 9 s: the cab is stationary (at rest)

Remark: Your body acts as an accelerometer (sensitive to acceleration)

due to the vestibular system in your inner ear.
Motions in one dimension: Free fall under gravity

Free fall under gravity:

• without air resistance (in vacuum), all the objects fall downward vertically with the same
acceleration (gravitational acceleration or acceleration of gravity) a = g = 9.81 m.s-2 under the
gravitational force of the Earth
• with the air resistance, the velocity increases at the beginning, then decreases till reaches the
terminal velocity (a heavier object has larger terminal velocity than a lighter object)

Remarks:
• g is latitude dependent value since the earth is not really in sphere shape (g = 9.832 m.s-2 at the
north and south poles; g = 9.780 m.s-2 at the equator)
• g on earth and on the moon is not the same since these two planets do not have the same mass (g
= 1.62 m.s-2 on the Moon)
Motions in two and three dimensions: position, displacement, distance
0z
Choose (Ox, Oy, Oz) coordinate system as illustrated in the figure below.
z

The position of a particle relative to the origin of a coordinate system is 0

𝒓
x
0x
given by a position vector:

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥. 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑦. 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑧. 𝑘 0y y

If a particle moves so that its position vector changes, the particle’s displacement is

∆𝑟 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = ∆𝑥. 𝑖Ԧ + ∆𝑦. 𝑗Ԧ + ∆𝑧. 𝑘

𝑟2

∆𝑟 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

0 𝑟1
Motions in two and three dimensions: velocity and speed
∆𝑟Ԧ
Average velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = ∆𝑥. 𝑖Ԧ + ∆𝑦. 𝑗Ԧ + ∆𝑧. 𝑘
∆𝑡

Instantaneous velocity

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣Ԧ = = . 𝑖Ԧ + . 𝑗Ԧ + . 𝑘 = 𝑣𝑥 . 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑣𝑦 . 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑣𝑧 . 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣𝑥 = ;𝑣 = ;𝑣 = ;
𝑑𝑡 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑧 𝑑𝑡

The velocity vector is always tangent to the path of motion

Motions in two and three dimensions: acceleration and deceleration
∆𝑣
Average acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = ∆𝑣𝑥 . 𝑖Ԧ + ∆𝑣𝑦 . 𝑗Ԧ + ∆𝑣𝑧 . 𝑘
∆𝑡

Instantaneous acceleration

𝑑 𝑣Ԧ 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧

𝑎Ԧ = = . 𝑖Ԧ + . 𝑗Ԧ + . 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧

𝑎𝑥 = ;𝑎 = ;𝑎 = ;
𝑑𝑡 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑧 𝑑𝑡

The acceleration vector is:

• in the same direction as the velocity vector as speeding up
• in the opposite direction as the velocity vector as slowing down
• perpendicular to the velocity and points inward the center of curve path as changing direction
• At some angle relative to the velocity vector as changing speed and moving direction
Motions in two and three dimensions: Projectile motion
Consider a particle was projected/launched with an initial velocity Oy

at the height h. Motion equations:

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑔Ԧ (move under gravitational force)

𝑣(𝑡
Ԧ = 0) = 𝑣0 (and non-zero initial velocity)

𝑟(𝑡
Ԧ = 0) = 𝑟0
At t = 0:
𝒗𝟎
hmax?
𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 𝑥 𝑡=0 =0 𝜽𝟎
and Horizontal range
𝑣𝑦 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 𝑦 𝑡=0 =ℎ
h
• What is the trajectory of the particle?
Ox
O
• What is maximum height if the path? (along Oy direction)
• How far the particle can go? (along Ox direction) Smax?
Motions in two and three dimensions: Projectile motion

The projectile motion can be described by the following equations: 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(0) = න 𝑣. 𝑑𝑡
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑔Ԧ 𝑣(𝑡
Ԧ = 0) = 𝑣0 0

Choose Ox and Oy directions as shown in the graph (Ox axis is horizontal and from left to right; Oy axis is vertical
and upward). Project on Ox axis and Oy axis, we have:
𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0
𝑎𝑥 =0 𝑎𝑦 =g
𝑣𝑦 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0
𝑡
Note that: 𝑣Ԧ = න 𝑎.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑡 Project on Ox axis and Oy axis, we have:
0
𝑡 𝑡
𝑣𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 = 0) = න 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 = 0) = න 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑑𝑡
0 0

or 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 or 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 = 0 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡

(motion with constant velocity along horizontal direction) (motion with constant acceleration along vertical direction)
Motions in two and three dimensions: Projectile motion
𝑡
Note that: 𝑟Ԧ = න 𝑣.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑡 Project on Ox axis and Oy axis, we have:
0
𝑡
𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑦(𝑡 = 0) = න 𝑣𝑦 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = න 𝑣𝑥 . 𝑑𝑡 0
0
𝑔𝑡 2
or 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 . 𝑡 or 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (𝑣0𝑦 ). 𝑡 −
2
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 . 𝑡 or 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 ). 𝑡 −
or 2

The equation of the path (trajectory) can be found be eliminating time t:

𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃0 . 𝑥 − 𝑥0 −
2 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 2

If we choose the origin at the ground (𝑥0 = 0 and 𝑦0 = ℎ), then:

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = ℎ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃0 . 𝑥 − 2 The path is parabolic
2 𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0
Motions in two and three dimensions: Projectile motion
At the highest position: When the particle returns to its initial height:
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡 = 0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = (𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 ). 𝑡 − =0
2
𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 2𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0
𝑡= 𝑡=
𝑔 𝑔
𝑔𝑡 2 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃0 2𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 𝑣02 . sin(2𝜃0 )
𝑦 = ℎ + (𝑣0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 ). 𝑡 − =ℎ+ 𝑅 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 ). 𝑡 = (𝑣0 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 ). =
2 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Max height Horizontal range

Horizontal range has its maximum value at theta = 450

Air reduces both height and range!

Motions in two and three dimensions: Projectile motion
Oy
Graphical analysis of projectile motion
C
• Plot ax(t), ay(t), az(t), a (t)
• Plot vx(t), vy(t), vz(t), v (t) D
B
• Plot x(t), y(t), z(t), r (t)
• Plot v(x)

Just simply count on you. 𝒗𝟎

E
𝜽𝟎
A

E Ox
O

Show velocity vector (𝑣)

Ԧ and acceleration vector (𝑎)
Ԧ at positions A, B, C, D, E
 Relative motions in different frames

When the two frames of reference A and B are moving relative to each other, we have:

Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while An inertial frame of reference is a reference frame
𝑟𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟𝑃𝐵 + 𝑟𝐵𝐴 where an object at rest stays at rest and an object in
inertia is an object's resistance to changes in its
state of motion. They are directly proportional: the motion stays in motion with the same speed and in
greater an object's mass, the greater its inertia, and thus 𝑣𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵𝐴 the same direction unless acted upon by an external
the more force is required to change its velocity. force. In simpler terms, it's a non-accelerating frame
of reference, meaning it is either stationary or moving
Therefore, mass is a direct measure of an object's inertia 𝑎𝑃𝐴 = 𝑎𝑃𝐵 + 𝑎𝐵𝐴 at a constant velocity.
To summarize……

● Point mass
● Position, displacement and distance See more in Review & Summary for chapter 2
● Velocity and speed (pp.30-31) and chapter 4 (pp.81-82) [1]

● Acceleration and deceleration

● Graphical analysis of motion
● Motion equations
● Trajectory
● Free fall under gravity
● Projectile motion
● Inertia and mass
● Inertial frame of reference
● Relative motion in different frames
 race car, tectonic plate,
Other motions for your homework blood cell,

Whiplash injury in rear-end collision

Drag race of car and motorcycle
(sample problem 2.06-p30) [1]
(sample problem 2.04-p25) [1]

Launched into the air from a water slide Projectile dropped from airplane A plane flying in a wind
(sample problem 4.05-p75) [1] (sample problem 4.04-p74) [1] (sample problem 4.08-p80) [1]
To expect in the next lectures……

2. Kinetics of motion: From force to motion

3. Dynamics of motions: From energy to motion
4. Circular motion

Make sure that you will be talking roughly about the same thing in the same language with
my dear friends in the next weeks!
To imagine more……

• Motion of electrons in atoms? Motions of electrons in electromagnetic field?

• Motion of a simple pendulum and a spring pendulum?
• Motion on an inclined plane?
• Circular motion?
• Motion of a car on highway and in the city?
• Motion of a plane taking off/ flying/ landing?
• Motion of the earth around the sun and motion of the moon around the earth?
• Animal movements: squid, inch worm, squirrel…

What can be their trajectory?

If there is still room in your heart for Physics, and you do love him as
much as I do……

• Units, Physical quantities and vectors

• Motion of point mass and system of point masses
• Point mass mechanics and Solid mechanics
• Inertia: the natural tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion
• Lagrangian function (L = T – V). Principle of least action (Hamilton principle)
• Linear motion, rotary motion, oscillatory motion, reciprocating motion, circular motion
• Fluid in motions (fluid mechanics)
Important messages to my lovely students….

‘Physics is not just about calculations with head-ache equations. Equation is just simply a nice way to
describe rules governing our world. There is no rule which is universal for everything around us, thus
we always look at things at a certain angle and try to understand a specific aspect. That might be the
reason why we have already got Newton, but then Einstein and Feynman, and maybe you in the
future. For your information: most of physicists have a beautiful mind, a romantic soul, and an
uncertain character!’

Hanoi Nov 2025

Dr. Vu Thi Thu
(signed and sealed)
The lady in the car is caught by a cop!

Police: Lady, you were going 60 miles an hour!

Lady: That’s impossible, sir, I was travelling for only seven minutes. It is ridiculous – how can I go 60 miles an hour when I
wasn’t going an hour?
Police: What we mean, lady, is this: if you kept in going the same way as you are going now, in the next hour you would go 60
miles.
Lady: Well, my food was off the accelerator and the car was slowing down, so if I kept on going that way it would not go 60
miles. If I kept on going the way I’m going for one more hour, I would run into that wall at the end of the street.
Police: Yes, of course, before you went an hour, you would hit that wall, but if you went one second, you would go 88 feet; lady,
you were going 88 feet per second, and if you kept on going, the next second it would be 88 feet, and the wall down there is
farther away than that.
Lady: Yes, but there’s no law against going 88 feet per second! There is only a law against going 60 miles an hour.
Police: But, it is the same thing.
The Feynman Lectures on Physics And you, how would you explain the velocity of 60 miles/ hour to her?