Matrices and Basic Calculus

for Non-Majors – MT161

Idrissa S. A.
[Link]@[Link]

Vector Algebra
Department of Mathematics - UDSM
November 11, 2024
Scalars vs Vectors
A scalar is simply a real number or a quantity that
has magnitude. e.g., length, temperature are
represented by numbers such as 80 m, 20o C.
A vector is described as a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction. e.g. Force and velocity

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Notations and Terminologies
Vector is represented by a directed line segment, that is
denoted by either a symbol with an arrow over it or bar
#»
under it. i.e u,
⃗ v or AB
A vector whose initial point is A and whose
#»
terminal point (or tip) is B is written AB
#»
The magnitude of a vector is written as ∣∣AB∣∣.
Equal vectors have same magnitude and direction
Vectors are free, can be moved from one place to
another
#» #»
−AB is a vector of same magnitude as AB but has
opposite direction
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Notations and Terminologies
#»
if k ≠ 0 is a scalar multiple, then k AB is a vector
#»
∣k∣ times longer than AB
#» #»
if k > 0, then k AB is in same direction as AB
#» #»
if k < 0, then k AB is in opposite direction as AB
#»
if k = −1, −AB has same magnitude but in
#»
opposite direction with AB
# » #»
if k = 0 Ô⇒ 0AB = 0 ; the zero vector
Two vectors are parallel if and only if they are
nonzero scalar multiples of each other.

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Think vector relations

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Notations and Terminologies

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Addition and Subtraction of vectors
#»
Parallelogram law: If two non-parallel vectors AB and
#»
AC are the sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal
# » #» #»
AD is the sum of AB and AC ;
# » #» #»
AD = AB + AC
#» #»
The difference of two vectors AB and AC is defined as
#» #» #» #»
AC − AB = AC + (−AB)

It can be clearly seen, that

#» #» ⃗
AC − AB = BC
#» #» # » #»
if AB = AC Ô⇒ BC = 0
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Addition and Subtraction of vectors

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Rectangular Coordinates
Vector initiated from the origin O with terminal
point P(a, b, c) is called the position vector
# »
OP = (a, b, c)

A vector in IR3 is an ordered triple (a, b, c). The

numbers a, b and c are called the components

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Rectangular Coordinates
The displacement from P1 (x, y ) to P2 (x + 4, y + 3)
is 4 units to the right and 3 units up.
the position vector #»
a = (4, 3) is equivalent to the
# »
displacement P1 P2

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Vectors in Space

Definitions
#»
Let #»a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be vectors in
IR3 , then
#» #»
1 a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 )
2 k #»
a = (ka1 , ka2 , ka3 ), k ∈ IR
#» #»
3 a = b if and only if a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , a3 = b3
#» #» #»
4 a − b = #»a + (− b )

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Vectors in Space
Properties of Vectors
#» #» #»
1 a + b = b + #» a ← commutative
#» #» #» #» #» #»
2 a +(b + c ) = (a + b)+ c ← associative
#» #» #»
3 a+0 = a ← additive identity
#» # » #»
4 a + −a = 0 ← additive inverse
#» #» #» #»
5 k( a + b ) = k a + k b , k ∈ IR
6 (k1 + k2 ) #» a = k1 #»
a + k2 #»a , k1 , k2 ∈ IR
7
#» #»
k1 (k2 a ) = (k1 k2 ) a , k1 , k2 ∈ IR
8 1 #»
a = #» a
#» #»
9 0a = 0 ← zero vector
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Vectors in Space

Vector Norm
The magnitude, length or norm of a position vector
#»
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is denoted by ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ defined as the length
of the geometric vector
√
#»
∣∣ a ∣∣ = a12 + a22 + a32
#»
Clearly ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ ≥ 0 with ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ = 0 ⇐⇒ #»
a = 0

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Vectors in Space
Unit Vector
Let #»
u is a vector in IR3 , then a unit vector in the
direction of #»
u is defined as
#»
û = #» #»
1
u
∣∣ u ∣∣
Example: Given #» u = (2, 3, −6), form a unit vector in
the direction of u and opposite direction of #»
#» u.

∣∣ #»
√ √
u ∣∣ = 22 + 32 + (−6)2 = 49 = 7
Unit vector in the direction of #» u is
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Vectors in Space
#»
û = #» #»
1 1
u = (2, 3, −6)
∣∣ u ∣∣ 7
Unit vector in the opposite direction of #» u is
#» 1 1
− û = − (2, 3, −6) = (−2, −3, 6)
7 7
Linear Combination
Let a#»1 , a#»2 , . . . , a#»n be vectors, then expression

k1 a#»1 + k2 a#»2 + . . . + kn a#»n

is called linear combination of vectors a#»1 , a#»2 , . . . , a#»n for

scalars k1 , k2 , . . . , kn ∈ IR
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Special Unit Vectors in IR3
#» #»
The unit vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and
#»
k = (0, 0, 1) are special unit vectors along x−, y −
and z− axes, respectively.
#» #» #»
The vectors i , j , k are referred as standard basis
for IR3
Any vector #» a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) can be written as a
linear combination of the standard basis
#» #» #» #»
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k

The scalars a1 , a2 and a3 are called the components

along their corresponding axes.

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More facts in IR3

Axes Coordinates Plane Coordinates

x (a, 0, 0) xy (a, b, 0)
y (0, b, 0) xz (a, 0, c)
z (0, 0, c) yz (0, b, c)
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Vectors in IR3
# » # »
If OP1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and OP2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are position
# »
vectors, the vector P1 P2 is
# »
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 )
#» #» #»
= (x2 − x1 ) i + (y2 − y1 ) j + (z2 − z1 ) k

Example: The points P1 and P2 are given by

P1 (4, 6, −2) and P2 (1, 8, 3). Find
# »
1 the vector P1 P2
# »
2 the magnitude of P1 P2
# »
3 the unit vector in the direction of P1 P2

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Vectors in IR3
# » # » # »
1 P1 P2 = OP2 − OP1
#» #» #»
= (1 − 4) i + (8 − 6) j + (3 − (−2)) k
#» #» #»
= −3 i + 2 j + 5 k
# » √ √
2 ∣∣P1 P2 ∣∣ = (−3)2 + 22 + 52 = 38
3 Unit vector #» u is given by

#» 1 #» #» #»
u = √ (−3 i + 2 j + 5 k )
38
#» #» #» #» #» #» #»
Example: If #»a = 3 i + 4 j − 8 k and b = 2 i − 5 j + 6 k
#»
find 5 #»
a −2b.
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Matrices and Basic Calculus
for Non-Majors – MT161

Idrissa S. A.
[Link]@[Link]

Dot Product
Department of Mathematics - UDSM
November 12, 2023
Dot Product
The dot Product of Two Vectors #» a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and
#»
b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is the scalar
#» #»
a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
#» #» #»
Example: if #» a = 2 i + j − 4 k and
#» #» #» #»
b = −3 i + 5 j + 2 k , then
#» #»
a ⋅ b = 2(−3) + 1(5) + (−4)(2) = −9
#»
Dot product of the basis vectors: i = (1, 0, 0),
#» #»
j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1), then
#» #» #» #» #» #» #» #»
i ⋅ j = j ⋅ i = 0, i ⋅ k = k ⋅ i = 0
#» #» #» #» #» #» #» #» #» #»
j ⋅ k = k ⋅ j = 0, i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k . k = 1
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Properties of dot product
#» #» #» #» #»
1 a ⋅ b = 0 if #» a = 0 or b = 0
#» #» #»
2 a ⋅ b = b . #» a commutative law
#» #» #» #» #» #» #»
3 a ⋅(b + c ) = a.b + a.c distributive law
#» #» #» #»
4 a ⋅ (k b ) = k( a ⋅ b ) k is a scalar
5
#»
a ⋅ #»
a ≥0
6
#»
a . a = ∣∣ #»
#» a ∣∣2
#»
Proof: Let #» a = (a , a , a ) and b = (b , b , b )
1 2 3 1 2 3

#» #» #»
a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = b1 a1 + b2 a2 + b3 a3 = b ⋅ #»
a
#»
a ⋅ #»
a = a1 a1 + a2 a2 + a3 a3 = a12 + a22 + a32 = ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣2

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One can define norm in terms of the dot product

∣∣ a ∣∣ = #»
#» a ⋅ #»
√
a

Alternative definition: Dot product can also be

defined in terms of norms and angle θ between vectors
satisfying 0 ≤ θ ≤ π:
#» #» #»
a ⋅ b = ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ cos θ
#»
where θ is the angle between vectors #»
a and b .

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Proof: Suppose θ is the angle between vectors
#» #» #» #» #» #» #» #»
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then
the vector
#» #» #» #» #»
c = b − #»a = (b1 − a1 ) i + (b2 − a2 ) j + (b3 − a3 ) k
#»
is the third side of a triangle enclosing #»
a and b
Using cosine law, we have
#» #»
∣∣ #»
c ∣∣2 = ∣∣ b ∣∣2 + ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣2 − 2∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ cos θ

#» 1 #»
Ô⇒ ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ cos θ = (∣∣ b ∣∣2 + ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣2 − ∣∣ #»
c ∣∣2 ) (1)
2

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Using
#»
∣∣ #»
a ∣∣2 = a12 + a22 + a32 , ∣∣ b ∣∣2 = b12 + b22 + b32

and
#»
∣∣ #»
c ∣∣2 = ∣∣ b − #»
a ∣∣2 = (b1 − a1 )2 + (b2 − a2 )2 + (b3 − a3 )2

substitute in 1, we have
#» #»
∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = #»
a⋅b
#»
What can you say on orientation of vectors #»
a and b if
#» #» #» #»
a ⋅ b > 0, #»
a ⋅ b = 0, #»
a ⋅ b < 0?

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Orthogonal Vectors
#»
Theorem: Two vectors #» a and b are said to be
#»
Orthogonal if and only if #»
a ⋅ b = 0.

#» #» #»
Example: Show that the vectors #»u = −3 i − j + 4 k
#» #» #»
and #»
v = 2 i + 14 j + 5 k are Orthogonal.
#»
u ⋅ #»
v = (−3)(2) + (−1)(14) + (4)(5) = 0
hence, the vectors are #»
u and #»
v are Orthogonal.
#» #» #»
The basis vectors i , j and k constitutes Orthogonal
unit vectors.
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Angle between two Vectors
Angle between two Vectors:
#» #»
a⋅b
cos θ = #» #»
∣∣ a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣
#» #» #»
Example: Find the angle between u#»1 = 2 i + 3 j + k
#» #» #»
and u#»2 = − i + 5√j +k
We have ∣∣u1 ∣∣ = 14, ∣∣u#»2 ∣∣ = 27 and u#»1 ⋅ u#»2 = 14, then
#» √
√
14 42
cos θ = √ √ =
14 27 9
√
42
Ô⇒ θ = cos−1 ( ) = 43.9o
9
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Direction Angles
The angles α, β, and γ between #» a and the unit vectors
#» #» #»
i , j , and k , respectively, are direction angles of #»
a

#» #» #» #» #» #»
a⋅ i a⋅ j a⋅k
cos α = #» , cos β = #» , cos γ = #»
∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣
ISA MT161 – 2022/2023 9 / 19
Direction Cosines
a1 a2 a3
Ô⇒ cos α = #» , cos β = #» , cos γ = #»
∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣
cos α, cos β and cos γ are the direction cosines of #»a.
The Components of unit vector are:
1 #» a1 #» a2 #» a3 #»
#» a = #» i + #» j + #» k
∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣ ∣∣ a ∣∣
#» #» #»
= cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k

Exercise
Show that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
ISA MT161 – 2022/2023 10 / 19
Example: Find the direction cosines and direction
#» #» #»
angles of the√vector #»
a =2i √ + 5 j + 4√k .
From ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ = 22 + 52 + 42 = 45 = 3 5, dir. cosines:
2 5 4
cos α = √ , cos β = √ , cos γ = √
3 5 3 5 3 5
direction angles are then
2
α = cos−1 ( √ ) = 1.27 radians = 72.7o
3 5
5
β = cos−1 ( √ ) = 0.73 radians = 41.8o
3 5
4
γ = cos−1 ( √ ) = 0.93 radians = 53.4o
3 5
ISA MT161 – 2022/2023 11 / 19
 #» #»
Component of a on b
#» #» #»
If #»
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , the distributive law and the
dot properties of basis vectors gives
#» #» #»
a1 = #»
a ⋅ i , a2 = #»
a ⋅ j , a3 = #»
a⋅k

symbolically
#» #» #»
comp #»i #»
a = #»
a ⋅ i , comp #»j #»
a = #»
a ⋅ j , comp #»
k
#»
a = #»
a ⋅ k
#»
Component on arbitrary vector b for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 :

ISA MT161 – 2022/2023 12 / 19

In both cases

comp #»b #»
a = ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ cos θ

rewriting using dot product, we have

#» #»
#» ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ cos θ #»
a⋅b
comp #»b a = #» = #»
∣∣ b ∣∣ ∣∣ b ∣∣
alternative expression
1 #»
comp #»b #»
a = #»
a ⋅ ( #» b )
∣∣ b ∣∣
#»
Generalization: Component of #» a on b , is a dot
#»
product of #»
a and a unit vector in the direction of b .
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 #» #» #» #» #» #» #»
Example: If #» a = 2 i + 3 j − 4 k and b = i + j + 2 k .
#»
Find comp #»b #»
a and comp #»a b .
#»
Determine unit vector in direction of b is:
#» √ 1 #» 1 #» #» #»
∣∣ b ∣∣ = 6, #» b = √ ( i + j + 2 k )
∣∣ b ∣∣ 6

#» #» #» 1 #» #» #»
comp #»b #»
3
a = (2 i + 3 j − 4 k ) ⋅ √ ( i + j + 2 k ) = − √
6 6
similarly,
#» #» #» #» 1 #» #» #» 3
comp #»a b = ( i + j + 2 k )⋅ √ (2 i + 3 j − 4 k ) = − √
29 29

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Projection of #»
a onto basis vectors

#» #» #»
Projection of #» a in any directions i , j , k is a vector in
that direction whose magnitude is the component of #» a
in that direction, e.g. #» #»
proj #»i #»
a = (comp #»i #»
a ) i , proj #»j #»
a = (comp #»j #»
a)j
ISA MT161 – 2022/2023 15 / 19
 #» #»
Projection of a onto b

#» #»
#» #» 1 #» a ⋅ b #»
proj #»b a = (comp #»b a ) ( #» b ) = ( #» #» ) b
∣∣ b ∣∣ b⋅b

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 #» #» #»
Example: Find the projection of #»
a = i − j + 3 k onto
#» #» #» #»
b = 2 i + j − 4k
Computing the dot products:
#» #» #» #»
a ⋅ b = 2 − 1 − 12 = −11, b ⋅ b = 4 + 1 + 16 = 21

thus
#» #»
#» a ⋅ b #» 11 #» #» #»
proj #»b a = ( #» #» ) b = − (2 i + j − 4 k )
b⋅b 21
22 #» 11 #» 44 #»
=− i − j + k
21 21 21

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Word done by a Force
#» #»
A force F is pulling a box causing displacement d

#» #» #» #» #» #»
Work done = (comp d#» F ) ∣∣ d ∣∣ = ∣∣ F ∣∣ cos θ∣∣ d ∣∣ = F . d
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Example: Find the work done by a constant force
#» #» #»
F = 2 i + 4 j if its point of application to a block
moves from P1 (1, 1) to P2 (4, 6). (Assume SI units)

#»
The displacement d of the block is given by
#» # » # » # » #» #»
d = P1 P2 = OP2 − OP1 = 3 i + 5 j
#» #» #» #»
W = (2 i + 4 j ).(3 i + 5 j ) = 26 Joules

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Matrices and Basic Calculus
for Non-Majors – MT161

Idrissa S. A.
[Link]@[Link]

Cross Product
Department of Mathematics - UDSM
November 12, 2024
Cross Product
Review of Determinants:
a1 a2
∣ ∣ = a1 b2 − a2 b1
b1 b2

RRRa1 a2 a3 RRR
RRR RR b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
RRRRb1 b2 b3 RRRRR = a1 ∣ c2 c3 ∣ − a2 ∣ c1 c3 ∣ + a3 ∣ c1 c2 ∣
RRR c1 c2 c3 RRR
Definition: The cross product of two vectors
#» #»
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is defined as
#» #» #» #» #»
a × b = (a2 b3 −a3 b2 ) i −(a1 b3 −a3 b1 ) j +(a1 b2 −a2 b1 ) k
#»
Components of the #» a × b are determinants of order 2
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 2 / 20
Cross Product
Alternatively, one can write using determinants as:

#» #» a a #» a a #» a a #»
a × b = ∣ 2 3∣ i − ∣ 1 3∣ j + ∣ 1 2∣ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

or determinant of order 3 as
RRR #» #» #»RR
#» #» RRR i j k RRR
a × b = RRRa1 a2 a3 RRRR
RRR R
RRb1 b2 b3 RRRR
#» #» #» #» #» #»
Example: Let a = 4 i − 2 j + 5 k and b = 3 i + j − k .
#»
Find #»
a × b.
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 3 / 20
Cross Product
#» #» −2 5 #» 4 5 #» 4 −2 #»
a × b =∣ ∣ i −∣ ∣ j +∣ ∣k
1 −1 3 −1 3 1
#» #» #»
= −3 i + 19 j + 10 k

Cross product of basis vectors:

RRR #» #» #»RR
#» #» RRR i j k RRR
0 0 #» 1 0 #» 1 0 #» #»
i × j = RRR 1 0 0 RRRR = ∣ ∣ i −∣ ∣ j +∣ ∣k = k
RRR RRR 1 0 0 0 0 1
RR 0 1 0 RR
RRR #» #» #»RR
#» #» RRR i j k RRR
0 0 #» 1 0 #» 1 0 #» #»
i × i = RRR 1 0 0 RRRR = ∣ ∣ i −∣ ∣ j +∣ ∣k = 0
RRR RRR 0 0 1 0 1 0
RR 1 0 0 RR
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Cross Product
Properties of Cross Product
#» #» #» #» #» #»
1 a × b = 0 if #» a = 0 or b = 0
#» #» #»
2 a × b = − b × #» a
#» #» #»
3 a × ( b + #» c ) = #»
a × b + #»a × #»
c distributive
#» #»
4 a + b ) × #»
( #» c = #» c + b × #»
a × #» c distributive
#» #» #» #»
5 a × (k b ) = (k #» a ) × b = k( #»
a × b ); k is scalar
#» #»
6 a × #»a = 0
#» #»
7 a ⋅ ( #»
a × b) = 0
#» #» #»
8 b ⋅(a × b) = 0

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Orthogonality with cross product

The last two properties, suggest that #»

a is orthogonal to
#» #» #» #» #»
a × b and b is orthogonal to a × b

#»
Generally when #»
a and b are nonzero vectors, then
#» #»
a × b is orthogonal to every vector in the plane
#»
containing #»
a and b .

#» #» #»
a × b is orthogonal to the plane containing #»
a and b

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 6 / 20

Orthogonality with cross product
Right-handed System
If the fingers of the right hand point along the vector #»
a
#»
and the curl toward the vector b , then the thumb will
#»
give the direction of #»a×b

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 7 / 20

Magnitude of cross product
#»
For nonzero vectors #»
a and b , if θ is the angle between
#» #»
a and b (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then
#»
∣∣ #»
a × b ∣∣ = ∣∣a∣∣∣∣b∣∣ sin θ

Alternative form, one can write

#» #»
a × b = (∣∣a∣∣∣∣b∣∣ sin θ) #»
n

where #»n is a unit vector given by the right-hand rule.

#»
i.e orthogonal to the plane of #»
a and b
#»
Theorem: Two nonzero vectors #» a and b are parallel if
#» #»
and only if #»
a × b = 0.
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 8 / 20
Parallel Vectors
#» #» #»
Example: Determine whether #» a = 2 i + j − k and
#» #» #» #»
b = −6 i − 3 j + 3 k are parallel vectors.

From the cross product

RRR #» #» #» RRR
#» #» RRR i j k RR
a × b = RR 2 1 −1RRRR
R
RRR R
RR−6 −3 3 RRRR
1 −1 #» 2 −1 #» 2 1 #»
=∣ ∣ i −∣ ∣ j +∣ ∣k
−3 3 −6 3 −6 −3
#» #» #» #»
= 0 i + 0 j + 0k = 0
#»
Hence, the vectors #»
a and b are parallel
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 9 / 20
Vector Scalar Product
#»
Scalar triple product of vectors #»
a , b and #»
c is
#» #» #»
a ⋅ ( b × c ) defined as
#» #» #» #» #»
a ⋅ ( b × #»
c ) = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k )⋅
b2 b3 #» b1 b3 #» b1 b2 #»
(∣ ∣ i −∣ ∣ j +∣ ∣k)
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
b2 b3 b b b b
= a1 ∣ ∣ − a2 ∣ 1 3 ∣ + a3 ∣ 1 2 ∣
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
RRRa1 a2 a3 RRR
R R
= RRRRRb1 b2 b3 RRRRR
RRR c c c RRR
R 1 2 3R

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 10 / 20

Vector Triple Product
#»
The vector triple product of three vectors #»
a , b , and #»
c
is defined as
#» #»
a × ( b × #»
c)
Vector triple product is related to the dot product by
#» #» #» #»
a × ( b × #»
c ) = ( #»
a ⋅ #»
c ) b − ( #»
a ⋅ b ) #»
c

Applications of Cross Product

Some applications in science and Engineering
1 Computing area of plane figures
2 Computing Volume of parallelepiped
3 Computing a torque of a force, etc
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 11 / 20
Area of a parallelogram

The area A is computed as

A = base × altitude
#» #»
= ∣∣ b ∣∣(∣∣ #»
a ∣∣ sin θ) = ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣∣∣ b ∣∣ sin θ
#»
= ∣∣ #»
a × b ∣∣

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 12 / 20

Area of a triangle

A parallelogram is made of two congruent triangles.

Hence, the area A is computed as
#»
A = ∣∣ #»
1
a × b ∣∣
2

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 13 / 20

Area of a triangle
Example: Find the area of the triangle determined by
the points P1 (1, 1, 1), P2 (2, 3, 4), and P3 (3, 0, −1).
# » # »
The vectors P1 P2 and P2 P3 can be taken as the two
sides of the triangle, where
# » #» #» #» # » #» #» #»
P1 P2 = i + 2 j + 3 k , P2 P3 = i − 3 j − 5 k
RRR #» #» #» RRR
# » # » RRR i j k RRR #» #» #»
P1 P2 × P2 P3 = RRR 1 2 3 RRR = − i + 8 j − 5 k
RRR R
RR 1 −3 −5RRRR
The area A is then
1 # » # » 1√ 3√
A = ∣∣P1 P2 × P2 P3 ∣∣ = (−1)2 + 82 + (−5)2 = 10
2 2 2
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 14 / 20
Volume of a Parallelepiped
#»
If the vectors #» a , b , and #» c do not lie in the same
plane, then the volume V of the parallelepiped with
#»
edges ∣∣ #»
a ∣∣, ∣∣ b ∣∣, and ∣∣ #»
c ∣∣

V = base area × height

#»
= ∣∣ b × #»
c ∣∣∣comp #»b × #»c #»
a∣
#» #»
#» #» #» b×c
= ∣∣ b × c ∣∣∣ a ⋅ ( #» #» ) ∣
∣∣ b × c ∣∣
#»
= #»
a ⋅ ( b × #»c)

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 15 / 20

Coplanar Vectors
Vectors that lie in the same plane are said to be
#»
coplanar. We have just seen that if the vectors #»a, b,
and #»c are not coplanar, then necessarily
#» #»
a ⋅ ( b × #»
c ) ≠ 0, since the volume of a parallelepiped
#»
with edges #»a , b , and #»
c has nonzero volume.
#»
This means that if #» a ⋅ ( b × #»
c ) = 0, then the vectors #»
a,
#»
b , and #»
c are coplanar. Since the converse of this last
statement is also true, we have:
#» #» #»
a ⋅ ( b × #»
c ) = 0 if and only if #»
a , b , and #»
c are coplanar

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 16 / 20

The Torque
#»
A force F acting at the end
of a position vector #»
r
produces a torque τ#»
#»
τ = #»
#» r ×F
#»
If ∣∣ F ∣∣ = 20 N, ∣∣ #»
r ∣∣ = 3.5 m
o
and θ = 30 , then

∣∣ #»
τ ∣∣ = (3.5)(20 sin 30o )
= 70 Nm

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 17 / 20

Linear independence
Definition
The vectors #»
v 1 , #»
v 2 , . . . , #»
v n are said to be linearly
dependent if there exit constants k1 , k2 , . . . , kn , not all
zeros, such that
#»
k1 #»
v 1 + k2 #»
v 2 + ⋯ + kn #»
vn= 0

Otherwise, #»
v 1 , #»
v 2 , . . . , #»
v n are said to be linearly
independent, i.e k1 = k2 = ⋯ = kn = 0.

Example: Determine whether the vectors (−1, 1, 0) and

(−2, 0, 1) are linearly dependent or linearly independent.
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 18 / 20
Linear independence
Forming the equation
⎡−1⎤ ⎡−2⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
k1 ⎢ 1⎥ + k2 ⎢ 0⎥ = ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
We obtain the homogeneous system
⎧
⎪ −k1 − 2k2 =0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨k1 + 0k2 = 0 Ô⇒ k1 = k2 = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0k1 + k2
⎪ =0

Hence the vectors are linearly independent.

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 19 / 20
Standard Basis Vectors for IR3
#» #» #»
In IR3 , the basis vectors i , j and k are linearly
independent, since the equation

k1 (1, 0, 0) + k2 (0, 1, 0) + k3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

Ô⇒ k1 = k2 = k3 = 0

#» #» #»
The vectors i , j and k form the basis for IR3 . Any
vector in IR3 can be written as a linear combination of
the basis vectors.
#» #» #»
The vectors i , j and k are the standard basis for IR3
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 20 / 20
Matrices and Basic Calculus
for Non-Majors – MT161

Idrissa S. A.
[Link]@[Link]

Lines and Planes in IR3

Department of Mathematics - UDSM
November 20, 2023
Vector Equation of a Line
Let P(x, y , z) is any point on the line ℓ and position
vectors for P1 , P2 , and P are r#»1 , r#»2 and #»
r

#» # » # » # »
r = OP, r#»1 = OP1 , #»
r 2 = OP2
#»
a = r#»2 − r#»1 is parallel to
#»
r − r#», thus
2

⇒ #»
r − r#»2 = t( r#»2 − r#»1 ), t ∈ IR

Ô⇒ #»
r = r#»0 + t #»
a
r0 a pos vector r#»1 or r#»2 Vector equation of a line
#»
a is direction vector
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 2 / 13
Vector Equation of a Line
Example: Find a vector equation for the line through
(2, −1, 8) and (5, 6, −3).
Define #»a = (2 − 5, −1 − 6, 8 − (−3)) = (−3, −7, 11),
choose r#»0 = (2, −1, 8), the vector equation is then
#» #» #» #» #» #» #»
r = r#»0 + t #»
a = 2 i − j + 8 k + t(−3 i − 7 j + 11 k )

Parametric representation
⎧
⎪ x = 2 − 3t
⎪
⎪
⎪
(x, y , z) = (2, −1, 8) + t(−3, −7, 11) Ô⇒ ⎨y = −1 − 7t
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩z = 8 + 11t
⎪

The variable t ∈ IR is the parameter

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 3 / 13
Vector Parallel to a Line
Example: Find a vector #»
a that is parallel to the line ℓ
whose parametric equations are x = 4 + 9t, y = −14 + 5t,
z = 1 − 3t.
#»
a is determined from the coefficients of parameter t
#» #» #» #»
a = 9 i + 5 j − 3k

Symmetric Equations: From the parametric equation

x = x0 + ta1 , y = y0 + ta2 , z = z0 + ta3

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
Ô⇒ = = =t
a1 a2 a3
This is the symmetric equations for the line
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 4 / 13
Symmetric Equations
Example: Find symmetric equations for the line
through (4, 10, −6) and (7, 9, 2).
Define parallel vector #»
a as
#»
a = (7 − 4, 9 − 10, 2 − −6) = (3, −1, 8)
Choose r#»0 as (4, 10, −6), the symmetric equations are:
x − 4 y − 10 z + 6
= = =t
3 −1 8
if one component of #» a is zero, we use the rest to
eliminate t. If a1 = 0, then
y − y0 z − z0
x = x0 , = =t
a2 a3
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 5 / 13
Symmetric Equations
Example: Find symmetric equations for the line
through (5, 3, 1) and (2, 1, 1).
Define the direction vector components

a1 = 5 − 2 = 3, a2 = 3 − 1 = 2, a3 = 1 − 1 = 0

choose r#»0 as (5, 3, 1), the symmetric equation is

therefore
x −5 y −3
= = t, z = 1
3 2
Interpretation, equation of a line in the plane z = 1.
Exercise: Write vector, parametric, and symmetric
equations for the line through (4, 6, −3) and parallel to
#» #» #» #»
a = 5 i − 10 j + 2 k
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 6 / 13
Planes: Vector Equation

Infinite number of planes through P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), only

one through P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with normal vector #»n given.
#» # »
if P(x, y , z) is any point on plane Π, and r = OP,
# »
r#»1 = OP1 , then, #»
r − r#»1 is in the plane. The vector
equation of the plane is given by the fact that
#»
n ⋅ ( #»
r − r#»1 ) = 0
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 7 / 13
Planes: Cartesian Equation
#» #» #»
if the normal vector is #»
n = a i + b j + c k , the
Cartesian equation of the plane containing
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
(a, b, c) ⋅ (x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 ) = 0
Ô⇒ a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0
Example: Find an equation of the plane with normal
#» #» #»
vector #»
n = 2 i + 8 j − 5 k , containing point (4, −1, 3).
The Cartesian equation is
2(x − 4) + 8(y − −1) − 5(z − 3) = 0
Ô⇒ 2x + 8y − 5z + 15 = 0
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 8 / 13
Planes: Vector Equation: 3 points
Theorem: Equation ax + by + cz + d = 0, a, b, c not all
#» #» #»
zero, is a plane with normal vector #» n =a i +b j +ck.
# » # »
Let #» r = OP, r#»1 = OP1 ,
# » # »
r#»2 = OP2 , r#»3 = OP3 , then
#»
r − #»
ri is on the plane,
create #» n as
#»
n = ( r#»2 − r#»1 ) × ( r#»3 − r#»1 )

Ô⇒ #»
n ⋅ ( #»
r − r#»0 ) = 0
is a vector equation of the
plane with r0 as pos vector
of any point in the plane.
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 9 / 13
Planes: Vector Equation
Example: Find an equation of the plane that contains
(1, 0, −1), (3, 1, 4), and (2, −2, 0).
Position vectors are r#»1 = (1, 0, −1), r#»2 = (3, 1, 4), and
r#»3 = (2, −2, 0), the normal vector is
#»
n = ( r#»2 − r#»1 ) × ( r#»2 − r#»3 )
#» #» #» #» #» #»
= (2 i + j + 5 k ) × ( i + 3 j + 4 k )
#» #» #»
= −11 i − 3 j + 5 k

Choose r#»0 = (1, 0, −1), vector equation of the plane is

#» #» #» #» #»
(−11 i − 3 j + 5 k ) ⋅ (r − ( i − k )) = 0

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 10 / 13

Intersecting planes and lines
1 Two planes intersect at a line
2 A plane and a line intersect at a point

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 11 / 13

Intersecting planes
Example: Find parametric equations for the line of
intersection of
2x − 3y + 4z = 1
x −y −z =5
we choose one variable arbitrarily, say z = t, and solve
for x and y from the line of intersection of
⎧
⎪2x − 3y = 1 − 4t
⎪
⎨ Ô⇒ x = 14 + 7t, y = 9 + 6t, z = t
⎪
⎪ x −y =5+t
⎩
parametric equations for the line of intersection is
x = 14 + 7t, y = 9 + 6t, z = t
ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 12 / 13
Intersecting planes and lines
Example: Find the point of intersection of the plane
3x + 2y + z = −5 and the line x = 1 + t, y = −2 + 2t,
z = 4t.
Choose point of intersection as P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) then, P0
must satisfies both the line and the plane,
⎧
⎪3x0 + 2y0 + z0 = −5
⎪
⎨
⎪ x = 1 + t0 , y0 = −2 + 2t0 , z = 4t0
⎩ 0
⎪
we can find that value of the parameter t0 , by solving

3(1 + t0 ) + 2(−2 + 2t0 ) + 4t0 = −5 Ô⇒ t0 = −4

Then x0 = −3, y0 = −10, z0 = −16 Ô⇒ P0 (−3, −10, −16)

ISA MT161 – 2023/2024 13 / 13