EE22057- ENERGY MANAGEMENT

AND AUDITING

UNIT IV
METERING FOR ENERGY MANAGEMENT
(Semester-V)
Professional Elective
Syllabus
UNIT IV METERING FOR ENERGY MANAGEMENT
(9hr)
Relationships between parameters-Units of measure-Typical
cost factors- Utility meters - Timing of meter disc for kilowatt
measurement - Demand meters - Paralleling of current
transformers - Instrument transformer burdens-Multitasking
solid-state meters - Metering location vs. requirements-
Metering techniques and practical examples.
Background
• Before 1980s, the monitoring of electrical power and energy was
dominated by conventional electromechanically voltmeter, ammeter
and watthour meter
• After 1980s, solid-state microprocessor-base-digital devices become
available for application in the commercial and industrial marketplace
Background
• Experience has shown that a 1-2 % reduction in consumption can be
achieved after meters are installed just letting the users know that
they monitored.
• Up to a 5% total reduction can occurs when the users in better
managing the use of their energy.
• Ultimately, up to 5 -8 % achieved when metering is tied directly to the
processor through a programmable logic controller (PLC) or
Distributed control system (DCS), in a closed loop automated process
control arrangement
Relationship between the parameters
• If only limited instrumentation is available, unknown parameters of
the power system can be calculated on the basis of known quantities.
• For example power factor can be calculated if power (in kilowatts-
KW) and apparent power (in kilovolt ampere-KVAR ) are known,
provided that the wattmeter and kilovoltampere meter readings were
taken simultaneously, or reasonably close together under assured
steady-state conditions
Unit of Measure
• It is not unusual to find that
even today there exits a basic
misunderstanding of the
different between unit of power
(a rate of consumption), and
unit of energy (the total
quantity consumed).
• Note that the unit of power,
multiplied by a specific period
of time such as minutes or
hours, yields units of energy or
work.
Typical Cost factors
• Typical cost factor or “rule of thumb” is useful to have handy for
estimating the cost of operating specific piece of equipment for a
year, and in comparing the cost of supplying heat energy from a
variety of sources.
• Note that the term MMBtu means one Million British Thermal Units.
• The term M stands for 1000 in the language of the financial word,
thus MM stands for one million.
Typical Cost factors
• MMBtu (MMBtu/MBTU)- Million British Thermal Unit
• The British Thermal Unit (BTU/Btu) is a unit of energy equal to about
1055 joules. It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound (0.454 kg) of liquid water by 1 F (0.56 degree
C) at a constant pressure of one atmosphere.
• Calorie (Cal) – The energy needed to increase the temperature of a 1
gram of water by 1 degree C at an atmosphere pressure.
Typical Cost factors
1 BTU is equal to
= 252 – 253 call
= 0.25 K call
= 1.054 – 1.060 KJ
= 0.293071 KW/h
Typical Cost factors
The typical cost factor listed below with example
• Comparing the cost between
heating with fuel at $ 1.00
per gallon and electricity at
$0.06 per kilowatthour,
electricity almost three
times more expensive.
• Note, However, that the
efficiency when burning the
fuel will be somewhat less
than 100% and must be
taken into consideration
Typical Cost factors

• The term $/1kW-y is useful when determining the cost of

operation a one-kilowatt load for a period of one year (8760
hours or any other value that represent the time of operation)
Typical Cost factors

• The term $/1hp-y is useful when determining the cost of

operation a one-horsepower motor for one year (8760 hours). The
efficiency of the motor must be estimated and used in the formula.
• The typical nominal efficiency for 50hp motor is 0.89 or 89% when
running at an average of 75% load or greater over a specified time
period.
Typical Cost factors
• A good rule of thumb for installation of a permanent kilowatthour
meter is based on the cost of electricity, the size and efficiency of the
load, the hour of operation, and the cost of the meter.
• For example, at $ 0.06/kWh and 8760 of operation per year with an
efficiency of 89%, a 200 hp motor will consume 200 x $441.00 or
$88,200.00 worth of electricity per year.
• Experience has shown that a 1% drop in energy consumption can be
expected just from the fact that the load is being metered. A 1%
reduction will save $882.00 per year
• Assuming the installed meter cost is $1000.00 installed, the simple
payback is less than 14 months.
Six reasons for meter
1. Charge out energy to individual departments
2. Accountability for energy used
3. Efficiency of utility equipment and systems
4. Provided information for audits of energy projects
5. Maintenance work: identify location of performance problems, and
providing feedback to managers
6. Identify potential future additional energy savings.
Utility Meters
• The watthour meter and the electromechanical style industrial
meters are very similar to those used in residential service.
• They are more complex due to the polyphase power source and use
instrumental transformer to obtain voltage and current for the meter
Utility Meters
• Watthour meter measures electrical energy through the interaction of
magnetic fluxes generated by the voltage and current coils acting to
produce eddy currents in the rotating aluminum disc,
• Eddy current flows generates magnetic line of forces that interact
with the flux in the air gap to produce turning torque on the disk.
• Each revolution of the meter disk represents a fixed value of
watthour.
• Jewel or magnetic bearing are used to support the disk and the gear
assembly is designed to impose minimum load on the disk.
Utility Meters • The upper part of the diagram
showing how the kilowatt demand
value is obtained from the utility
kilowatthour meter.
• Each time the meter disk makes
one complete revolution under the
influence of the voltage and
current coils, the photocell
energize the relay and transfers
contact A and B, providing
kilowatthour output pulse.
• At the end of the demand interval,
usually 15, 30, or 60 min, a clock
pulse is given for 2- 6s.
• The A, B and clock contacts are
used by the demand monitoring or
control equipment to develop the
curve shown in the lower part of
the fig
 Utility Meters
• The kilowatt hour pulses are merely added to each other over the
demand interval.
• The line connecting the top of the columns of pulses describes the
accumulation of kilowatt hour pulses during the interval.
• The actual kilowatt hour per pulse and the number of total pulses
recorded during the interval will depends on the plant load and the PT
and CT ratios for the kilowatt hour meter.
• The slope of the fig 6.4, mathematically
speaking, is defined as rise over run,
which is kilowatt hour divided by time,
which is equal to kilowatt demand.
Utility Meters
• The total kilowatt hour of energy consumed divided by the time over
which it was consumed, yields average kilowatt demand (kWd) for
power over that time interval.
• By detecting the slope of the line early in the interval, corrective
action can be taken to reduce the slope by shutting off loads,
lowering the average kWd to a more acceptable value.
• A flat line of zero slope would indicate no further energy
consumption, a zero demand for power.
• A line with negative slope would indicate negative energy
consumption, with reversal of power flow; i.e., on-site generation of
power back into the utility company transmission system.
• This is unlikely to be realize since most utility meters are ratcheted to
prevent reverse registration, meters would be added to separately
register kilowatt hour being exported to the utility system.
Utility Meters
• The exact length of the demand interval will vary by utility, one of the
most common being 30 minutes.
• However as kWd peak increases and as few utility customers attempt
peak-splitting the demand interval reduced to 15 or even few
minutes.
• The kWd peak is the highest average kWd for any successive 30
minutes during the power company billing period.
• There are some extreme where the utility will refuse to supply the
customer with kilowatthour pulse information.
• In this case CTs and PTs and appropriate kilowatthour meter or other
transducer must be installed in order obtain kilowatt demand
information.
Utility Meters
• An optical transducer can be placed over the face of the meter and
the transducer can read the utility meter. The transducer output can
then be sent to the EMS system. The EMS can then be programmed
to properly interpret the meter reading,
• Utilities would like to supply power on a smooth continuous basis,
with no peak and valley that required large swings in the amount of
generating equipment being called into service.
• For that reason, utility bills reflect the effect of such swings in
demand using concept of load factor.
• Load factor is defined as the ratio of average demand to peak
demand.
Utility Meters

• Load factor can be improved by limiting the peak values and filling in the valley as shown in the fig 6.6
• The load factor improved from 0.5 into 0.63
• The ideal load factor is 1.0 meaning that the demand is absolutely constant with no peaks and valleys.
This, of course not actually possible.
• About the best that can be expected will be approximately 0.98 for a monthly period and 0.85 for an
annual value.
Conventional electromechanical watthour meter
• A PT and a CT connected to one of the three input phases to the
meter.
• The CTR on the meter face stands for CT ratio and 800 to 5 indicates
that when 800A flows through the phase conductor, 5 A flows
through the CT secondary into the meter.
• The PTR on the meter faces stands for PT ratio and the 60/ 1 indicates
that with 120V on the secondary serving the meter potential coils,
the primary is connected to a 7200 V supply (120V x 60 = 7200 V)
Timing of meter disc for kilowatt measurement
• The disc of a watthour meter makes from one-half to one rotation per
watthour depending on the meter constant kh.
• The number of watthours for any period is then the product of the
number of disc rotation times the meter constant
• The speed rotation of the disc, therefore indicates the usage rate or
the watt being used
• The kilowatt is a more reasonable quantity for consumption rate and
the following formula can be used when timing a meter disc:
Timing of meter disc for kilowatt measurement
• The kilowatt is a more reasonable quantity for consumption rate and
the following formula can be used when timing a meter disc:
Demand meter
• Gas and water are sold by the cubic foot and electricity by the kilowatthour.
• The cost of producing and delivering these commodities is not strictly
proportional to volume in one case or quantity of electricity in the other
• because electricity cannot be stored, the cost of serving a customer who run.
• For example a 100 hp motor for one hour a day is much greater than the cost
of serving one who operates a 10 hp motor ten hours a day, through both use
same number of total kilowatthours.
• The 100 hp motor requires large generator at the power house, heavier cables
to carry the electrical energy perhaps may miles from the power house to the
motor, and large transformers, switches, fuses, and protecting apparatus at
several points along the line.
• All of this necessities an expanse that must be recorded either in a higher rate
to all users or in a proper charge for service plus a lower rate for kilowatt-
hour.
 Demand meter
• For the purpose of billing this stand by expanse the term demand has
been adopted.
• The demand meter is installed along with the conventional meter
either as a separate device or as an attachment for the watthour
meter.
• The consumer then pays an amount determined by the maximum
demand for the previous month in addition to the kilowatt-hour.
• But the rate for the latter generally made low so that if the load has
been reasonably steady, the total bill is less than it would be
otherwise.
• Thus there is powerful incentive for a large use of electricity at a
steady and continuous rate with benefit to all concerned
Demand meter
• The demand charge is based on the highest load for a short time
period say 15 or 30 minutes, which occurred during the month, but
may not be necessarily be fixed by the actual number of kilowatt hour
used during that period.
Demand measurement in general
• The demand is the load that is drawn from the source of supply at the
receiving terminals averaged over a suitable and specified interval of
time, such as 15 or 30 minutes.
• Demand is expressed in kilowatts, kilovoltamperes or ampere or
other suitable units
• It should be noted that demand is measured in watts. Etc.. And not in
watthour and it is displaced by indicating and not by an integrating
device.
• Customer is billed on instantaneous demand.
The demand meter as a standard
• Demand is not a distinct quantity and it can be expressed in
fundamental unit for the billing purpose.
• Accurate meters have come to be expected in order to establish a
customer’s confidence in utility.
• It is necessary to have a standard of measurement agree upon by
both parties to the transaction.
• In order to be acceptable as a standard a meter must be such as to
facilitate calibration in terms of standard quantities.
The demand meter as a standard
• The time intervals over which the power is averaged are determined
in the following manner. One o’clock to 1:15 is one interval, 1:15 to
1:30 is another interval, 1:30 to 1:45 is still another interval and so
on.
• The entire day or month are divided into 15 min blocks.
• The block that shows the highest or maximum demand is the one that
is generally used for billing purpose.
• The are a number of ways in which the average may be determined it
being very unlikely that during any 15 minutes period of time the
power is absolutely steady
• More likely it is high in one minute and low in the next.
• The type of meter that is generally used the so called integrating
demand meter. Which gives the demand in kilowatt directly.
The demand meter as a standard
• If the kilowatthours that are consumed in a 15 minute period are
known, it is a comparatively simple matter to determine the average
power
• For example if from 1:00 to 1: 15 the kilowatthour consumed were
62, the power would be 62 divided by 15/60 or 248 kW
• If from 1:15 to 1:30 the kilowatthour consumed were 84, the average
kilowatt would be 336.
• It would involve considerable labour to read all the watthour meters
exactly every 15 minutes, but the demand meter does this
automatically.
• Indicating demand meters generally consists of a watthour meter, the
usual integrating register being replaced by a combination of
watthour and demand register.
The demand meter as a standard
• There are herein termed indicating because they use pointers and
scales as in indicating instruments to distinguish them from recording
and potentiometer meters
• Demand is expressed by defining in average watts or power over time
interval and not watthour or energy.
• All principal models of watthour meter both single or polyphase can
be equipped with demand registers
• These demand registers usually retain the integrating register
mechanism and dial and in addition there is a separate gear train also
driven by the meter element, which pushes the demand pointer
forward over a graduated dial marked in kilowatts.
Demand Meter – construction and working
The maximum demand meter indicates the maximum demand of
electric energy of a consumer i.e., it indicates the maximum amount of
power required over a period of time. The maximum demand meters
are classified as,
• Recording maximum demand meter
• Average or Merz-price maximum demand meter
• Thermal type maximum demand meter
• Digital maximum demand meter
Demand Meter- construction and working
In this let us see about Merz-price maximum demand meter. Merz-
Price maximum demand meter is not a separate unit but an additional
attachment with an energy meter.

This assembly allows registering the total energy consumption and the
maximum amount of average power consumption over pre-specified
time intervals of equal duration called an integrating time period.
Construction of Maximum
Demand meter :
• It consists of a separate dial
mechanism whose pointer is
driven by a pin and gear train
arrangement which is coupled to
the spindle of the moving system
of the meter as shown in the
figure.
• The system is provided with a reset
device, which brings back the pin
to its zero position after each
integrating period

Merz-price maximum demand meter

Construction of Maximum Demand meter :
• The pointer is provided by a special friction mechanism, which makes
the pointer stay at the same previously indicated position even after
the reset of pin position. It means the pointer moves in the forward
direction only when the power consumption during that time period
is more than its previous maximum value where the pointer is resting.
• The reset device consists of a cam, which is controlled by a timing
gear. After each integrating period, it isolates the pinion and moving
system with the help of a bell crank. During this small isolation
period, the pin returns to its zero position due to the action of the
spiral spring.
Working of Maximum Demand meter :
• The energy consumed for an integrating time period (15 or 30
minutes) is indicated by the pointer on the dial. The pointer is driven
by the pin. After this time period, the reset device comes into action
and makes the pin return to its zero position as explained earlier. But
the pointer continues to indicate the same reading. The pin starts
indicating the energy consumed in the next time period.
• If this consumption increases beyond the previous consumption
value, which is being indicated by the pointer then only the pointer
moves further, otherwise, it will be stable at the same position.
Working of Maximum Demand meter :
• The Merz-Price maximum demand meter is also known as average
demand meter since the average maximum demand can be obtained
by,

Advantages of Maximum Demand meter :

• High accuracy in the maximum demand measured
• The scale is uniform
Disadvantages of Maximum Demand meter :
• The use of a gearing mechanism makes the construction complicated
and increases the cost
Instrumental transformer
• Transformers are used in a.c systems for the measurement for the
measurement of current, voltage, power and energy.
• There are also used in connection with measurement of power factor,
frequency.
• Transformers used in conjunction with measurement instruments for
measurement purposes are called “Instrument transformers”
• The transformer used for measurement of current is called a “current
transformer” or simply “CT”
• Transformer for voltage measurements are called “Voltage
transformer” or “Potential transformer” or simply “P.T” for short
Use of Instrumental transformer
• A Currents and Voltages handled very large in power system and
therefore direct measurement are not possible as these currents and
voltages are far too large for any meter of reasonable size and cost.
• The solution lies in stepping down these currents and voltages with
instrument transformer so that they could be metered with
instruments of moderate size.
Use of Instrumental transformer
• A current being measured by a CT. the primary winding is so
connected that the current being measured passes through it and the
secondary connected to an ammeter.
• The “C.T” steps downs the current to the level of ammeter.
Use of Instrumental transformer
• A Voltage being measured by a VT. the primary winding is connected
to the voltage being measured and the secondary to voltmeter.
• The “P.T” steps downs the voltage to the level of voltmeter.
Instrumental transformer with watthour meter
• Instrumental transformers are used for two reasons –
• First to protect operators from contact with high voltage circuit
• Second to permit the use of meters with a reasonable amount of insulation and
reasonable current carrying capacity.
• It would be very difficult and expensive to make a watthour meter with a
6600 V potential coil or a 1000 A current coil.
• The secondaries of potential transformers are would for 120 V and the
secondaries of the current transformer for 5 A, thus making possible the
use of the 120 V, 5 A meters.
• The transformer insulate the meter from the line and even if the current in
a 2300 V circuit was only 5 A, it would be not safe to connect the current
coils of the watthour meters directly into the line.
• Instead a 5-to-5 current transformer would be used.
• A 2400 – 120 V potential transformer has a 20:1 ratio.
• A 75-5 A current transformer has 15:1 ratio.
• The secondary voltage that is impressed upon the potential coil of the
meter is in phase with the primary voltage and the current that
passes through the current coil is in phase with the primary current.
• All the instrumental transformer should be grounded on the
secondary side. This prevent a static voltage above ground on the
secondary due to the relations of transformer capacitance.
• It is also precaution against danger from high voltage resulting form
puncture of insulation by lightning or other abnormal stresses.
• Any point of the secondary may be grounded in polyphase group, but
the preference is a neutral point or common wire between two
transformer.
Current Transformer
• The current transformer is connected directly in series with the line and the
current coils of the meters are connected in its secondary
• When current is flowing in the primary winding, the secondary winding is kept
closed, by short-circuiting the secondary winding or else closed through the
current coils of the meters.
• The primary consists of very few turns and therefore there is no appreciable
voltage across it.
• The secondary of the current transformer has large number of turns, the exact
number being determined by the turns ratio.
• The ammeter or wattmeter current coil, is connected directly across the
secondary terminals.
• A CT operates its secondary nearly under SC conditions.
• One of the terminals of the secondary winding is earthed so as to protect
equipment and personal in the vicinity in the event of an insulation breakdown in
the CT.
• Ratio and phase angle errors are ignored while CT installation because they are
too small to take into consideration.
Ratio error and phase angle error
Ratio Error:
• It is knows that the value of transformation ratio (actual ratio) is not equal to the
turns ratio in CT and PT.
• Also the value not constant but depends upon the magnetizing and loss
components of the exciting current, the secondary winding load current and its
power factor.
• This means that the secondary winding current is not a constant factors of the
primary winding current but depends upon the factor listed above, this
introduces considerable errors in CT and PT.
Phase angle error:
• The angle by which the secondary current phasor, when reversed,
differs in phase from the primary current, is known as the phase angle
of the transformer.
• In an ideal instrumentation transformer the vector angle between the
primary and secondary current is zero but in actual Transformer there
is phase difference between the primary and the secondary current
because the primary current has also supplied the components of
exciting currents.
Potential Transformers
• The potential transformers are used to operate the potential coils of
voltmeter, wattmeter and relays from high voltage lines.
• The primary winding of the transformer is connected across the lines
carrying the voltage to be measured and the voltage circuit is connected
across the secondary winding.
• The secondary terminal of the voltage transformers should never be short-
circuited. If they should become short-circuited, a heavy current will flow
that will likely damage the winding.
• There are two classes of errors inherent in voltage transformer: ratio error
and phase-angle error.
• The part of these error due to the exciting current is constant for any
particular voltage.
• It can be reduced to a minimum by choosing the best quality of iron and
working as a low magnetic density.
Potential Transformers
• The part of this errors due to the load current varies directly with load and
can be minimized by making the resistance and reactance of the winding
very low.
• In any transformer the ratio error can be neutralized for one particular
conditions of load by compensating the transformer by an amount just
sufficient to make up the voltage drop at the specific load.
• The effect of the phase displacement of the secondary voltage need not be
considered when using voltmeters, frequency meter,etc.
• With wattmeter and watthour meter whose indications depend not only
on the voltage, but also on its phase relation to the line current, the phase-
angle error has some effect.
• The ratio errors and phase-angle errors are small and it is very seldom that
they are taken into consideration when potential transformers are used
with watthour meters.
Different Between CT and PT
• CT acts as a step up transformer whereas PT act as Step down
transformer
• Secondary Voltage of PT is lesser than the primary voltage whereas
secondary voltage of CT is higher than the primary voltage
• Secondary current of PT is more than the primary voltage whereas
secondary voltage of CT is less than the primary voltage
• In Case of PT Primary winding has more number of turns compared to
secondary whereas in case of CT primary winding has less number of
turns compare to secondary.
• In case of PT the primary winding is connected across the load
whereas in case of CT the primary winding is connected in series with
the load.
Paralleling of current transformers
• For the purpose of totalization, the secondaries of current transformers are
sometimes paralleled, the total secondary current is sent to through the
coil of a meter.
• When transformer are paralleled it is essential that they be of same ratio.
• When the transformer are paralleled, the circuits must be of the same
frequency and from the same source of supply.
• The sum of the secondary currents that flows to the meter coil will be a
vector sum.
• The method is quite accurate and simple. In case there is no load on one of
the transformers very little current will leak through this winding because
of its very high impedance as compared to the meter coil itself.
Paralleling of current transformers
• If several current transformers are connected in parallel on the
secondary side, the meter coil must, of course have capacity to carry
the resultant current, or else the current transformer must designed
so that the resultant current will be within the meter rating usually 5A
or less.
• Conditions of parallel operation of transformer
• Polarity must be same
• Same voltage at terminal
• Frequency must be same
• Per unit impedance of transformer same
• X/R ratio is must be same
• Phase sequency must be same for 3 phase transformer
• Zero phase different for 3 phase transformer
Instrumental transformer burdens
• The burden on an instrument transformer is simply the load on its
secondary. It is usually expressed in voltmeters at rated voltage or current
at a specified power factor.
• The phase angle and ratio of a voltage transformer are affected by its
secondary burden. This burden consists potential circuits of the watthour,
wattmeter, voltmeter etc.
• Variation of the line voltage also affect the error since the voltage is
practically constant the small variations need not be considered
• In the current transformer the phase angle and ratio errors are depend
upon the secondary burden and upon the primary current.
• The primary current may vary over a comparatively wide range because of
the change of the load and the errors are different for each value of
current.
Instrumental transformer burdens
 Instrumental transformer burdens
• The secondary burden consists of the current coils of wattmeter,
watthour meter, ammeter etc.
• The power factor of the line in no way affects the ratios and phase
angles of instrument transformers and should not be confused with
the power factor of the secondary burdens.
• Typical performance curve of the various types of instrument
transformer can be usually be obtained from the manufacturers.
• If the burdens are known the errors can be determined from the
curves.
Solid-state energy meters
• The first step in meter evolution was the replacement of
electromechanical meters with solid-state electronic meters.
• Electronic meters measure energy using highly integrated
components, and families of energy measurement ICs.
• These devices digitize the instantaneous voltage and current via a
high-resolution sigma-delta ADC.
• Computing the product of the voltage and current gives the
instantaneous power in watts. Integration over time gives energy
used, which is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
• The energy data is displayed on a liquid-crystal display (LCD), as
shown
Solid-state energy meters – block diagram

LCD
LCD Driver EEPROM
Signal
Transducer ADC
Conditioning Tamper
MCU
Power RS-485
Supply Driver RTC
Opto-Coupler
IEC1107
Solid state energy meters
• Solid state meters comprise of a microcontroller connected to an LCD
screen, home power line, and current transformer.
• The current transformer is the key portion of this design and is made
up of primary winding, magnetic core, and secondary winding.
• Electricity passes through the primary winding, generating a
magnetic field that creates a sympathetic current in the secondary
winding.
• The secondary winding connects to the microcontroller, which
interprets this current, keeps a count of the total electricity used,
sends it to the power company, and presents it on the LCD display for
the homeowner to view if he wishes.
Benefits of Electronic meters
• In addition to measuring instantaneous power, they can measure
other parameters such as power factor and reactive power.
• Unlike electromechanical meters, they have no moving parts and do
not require calibration.
• They can send information about electricity usage directly to the
power company; thus, an employee need not come to your home
once a month to read and record your meter.
• Data can be measured and stored at specific intervals, allowing the
utility to offer price plans based on time-of-day of usage. This allows
consumers to save money by running major appliances, such as
washers and dryers, during lower-cost, off-peak periods; and utility
companies can avoid building new power plants because less capacity
is required during peak periods.
Benefits of Electronic meters
• Electronic meters are not influenced by external magnets or the
orientation of the meter itself, so they are more tamper-proof than
electromechanical meters.
• Electronic meters are also highly reliable.
Solid state energy meters
• Once meter data is available in electronic form, it becomes feasible to
add communications to the meter, allowing the meter to use
automatic meter reading (AMR) to access data remotely via the
communication link.
• AMR allows utility companies to conveniently provide higher order
benefits and services, such as real-time pricing to promote better
energy efficiency, instant reporting of fault detection, and more
accurate data for profiling usage within the network.