CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, it will be present review of theories concerning the

research topics and conceptual framework underlying the study. The
details of theoretical review and conceptual framework and presented as
follows.

A. The Concept of Public Speaking Ability

1. The Definition of Speaking
Many experts tried to define the meaning of speaking. One of
those was stated in his book. Speaking is an interactive process of
constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and
processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997).
People communicated by transferring the idea, sharing the idea, to
other people. In other hand, people also receive the idea from the
others to understand it properly. Brown1 also states that speaking is
a productive skill that can be observed directly and empirically,
those observations are invariably colored by the accuracy and
effectiveness of a test taker’s listening skill, which necessarily
compromises the reliability and the validity of an oral production
test. The way how people’s speak, it was depend on how often
they drill its skill. It was one the way deliver the language or
information.
From some definition above, we can conclude that speaking is
producing and processing information, then it can deliver and share
the idea to the others. Speaking is the way how we interacted with

1
Brown. G and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language; An Approach Based on
the Analysis of Conversational English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 the others. Speaking skill can effect the others skill to make it
complete.
2. The Definition of Public speaking
According to Nikitina, public speaking is “a process, an act, and
an art of making a speech before an audience.” (P.10) When the
people make a telephoned call, greeting the other, it means they
are speech. In public speaking, there are three primary elements2:
the speaker, the audience and the message. Without a speaker,
there cannot be an oral message. Without an audience, the
message cannot be public. Without an organized message, the
speech is not likely to be effective. In public speaking, the three
elements have their own role to complete one to each other. It can
be concluded that public speaking is the situation of one person
standing in front of the audience to share his/her idea or message
that contain of good or useful information.
3. The Definition of Ability
Fleishman and Bartlett (1969) stated a human ability is a union
of a native process (or processes) in humans and a content (or
contents) inferred from relatively permanent changes in behaviour.
Abilities are of two kinds: Cognitive and Psychomotor. Cognitive,
when human understand the meaning of statement in acquiring
language or comprehending a word. Psychomotor, when human
being to acquire specific skill for a specific work. Therefore, ability is
a condition of a person can control or master a field well.
4. The Definition of Public Speaking Ability
Good public speaking ability can empower the learners to better
communicate their ideas and opinions as well as succeed in the job

2
Linda J. Webster. 2012. Introduction to Public Speaking 2nd Edition. State University
Shreveport. P. 2
 market and other areas of life. Public speaking ability is condition of
a person who can stand up in front of the audience to deliver a
good information or message.
5. The Types of Speaking

According to Linda (2012), one way to categorize these

speeches is by the amount of preparation time they require. Other
speeches are designed to fit the occasion or the purpose. She
divided speech into seven part.

First, limited preparation speeches divided into two part, first

impromptu speech requires very little if any preparation. Second is
extemporaneous, the speech might include extensive preparation
ahead of time. Second, unlimited preparation speeches, such as
informative speeches to inform are intended to share new ideas
and build perceptions. Next, convince, this is a tricky category
lodged between the speech to inform and the speech to persuade.
Then, persuasion, persuasive speaking takes a less objective view
on some topic and asks the audience to take action in support of
that view. Next, logic reasoning is a process of stacking evidence
to create support for conclusions drawn by the speaker. Next,
logical fallacies Beware of using false (fallacious) premises on
which to build your arguments. These premises often arise from
over-generalization or “received” wisdom – what a culture believes
to be true without benefit of evidence or from very limited evidence.
The last, critical thinking, both the speaker and the audience are
responsible for testing conclusions and challenging generalizations
throughout the speech.
 6. The Advantages of Speaking
By developing speaking skills will get some benefit in this life, it
following below3:
a. Developing the skill to give these types of speeches can help us
to fulfill essential roles in our family and community.
b. Public speaking is builds self-confidence.
c. It is believed 70% of jobs today involve some form of public
speaking (Aras, 2012).
d. Learning about public speaking will allow you to participate in
democracy at its most basic level.
e. Public speaking is important in creating and sustaining a
society, which includes informed, active participants.
7. The Disadvantages of Speaking
According to the Ohio State University Extension, “Good public
speakers are made, not born.” There are some disadvantages of
speaking, it following below:
1. Fear
According to Emory University, “The fear of public speaking
is common in up to 88 percent of individuals with social phobia,
and 34 percent of people in the general population." For some,
anxiety surrounding public speaking may be more than a simple
fear reaction. Good public speaking requires eye contact, voice
control, vocabulary recall under stress and in the moment and
the ability to speak clearly and in specific about a subject while
holding the interest of an audience. Such a degree of control
3
Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D., Morgan Hartranft. 2013. Public Speaking: The Virtual Text.
Millersville University, Millersville, PA. p.1-2
 may be difficult or impossible depending on the level of fear
experienced by the individual.
2. Time Sink
The large amount of preparation needed to ready oneself for
an effective speech can take time away from other projects or
personal pursuits. Speakers need to not only create an outline,
but to create props and visual aids. The University of New
Hampshire Cooperative Extension warns against depending on
notes to do the speaking, memorizing a speech or writing it out
in its entirety in lieu of practice.
3. Lack of Control
When performing a public speech, the potential always exists
for unexpected questions or the possibility that the presentation
will go in an unintended direction. A speaker cannot always
prepare in advance for every possibility. An open forum leaves
the speaker exposed to unpleasant surprises from the
audience. Public speaking opens the speaker to the possibility
of saying something potentially inflammatory, embarrassing or
otherwise negative. That may have cataclysmic effects for her
career or public image.
8. How to Teach Public Speaking Ability
Speaking in front of an audience in a foreign language can be
an intimidating proposition. In addition to the lexical, syntactical and
semantic concerns, potential speakers need to deal with anxiety
and other affective issues. Despite the inherent challenges,
teaching our ESL/EFL students to speak confidently in public is a
noble endeavor. Good public speaking skills can empower our
learners to better communicate their ideas and opinions as well.
 The basic structure4 of each meeting to develop public speaking
ability, includes:
a. A short mini lecture on the topic(s) of the day, such as the
voice, how is your delivery?, impromptu versus
extemporaneous speaking, etc.
b. Practice with various examples of the target skills.
c. Activities to expand on these skills.
d. Project work.
9. The Handicaps of Teaching Public Speaking
The position of speaking in the hierarchy of language skills has
evolved over the centuries. Importantly, as far as the stages of
mental processing involved in speaking are concerned, there is not
much difference between native and target languages. Both
combine the processes of conceptualizing, formulating, articulating,
self-monitoring and negotiating. Yet, the skill of speaking is not
automatically transferable from the speaker’s first language into the
second (Thornbury 2007).
Other problems that are commonly observed in the language
classroom are related to individual learners’ personalities and
attitudes to the learning process and learning speaking in
particular. They can be defined as follows5:
a. Inhibition – fear of making mistakes, losing face, criticism;
shyness
b. Nothing to say – learners have problems with finding motives to
speak, formulating opinions or relevant comments

4
Brent A. Jones. 2017. Developing Public Speaking Skills. Kobe Gakuin University.
5
Magdalena Aleksandrzak. 2011. Problems and Challenges In Teaching and Learning
Speaking At Advanced Level. Uniwersytet Im. Adama Mickiewicza W Poznaniu. P.39
 c. Low or uneven participation – often caused by the tendency of
some learners to dominate in the group
d. Mother-tongue use – particularly common in less disciplined or
less motivated classes, learners find it easier or more natural to
express themselves in their native language.
10. How to Assess Public Speaking
Assessment rubrics aspects of public speaking was grouped
into 2 main categories6: Content and Delivery.
a. Content: States the purpose; organises the content;
supports ideas; incorporates stories and examples;
summarises the main idea.
b. Delivery: demonstrates awareness of listeners needs;
speaks clearly with appropriate vocabulary and information;
uses tone, speed and volume as tools; demonstrates
complexity of vocabulary and thought; appears comfortable
with the audience.

The other criteria of public speaking according to University of

Vermont Extension, it was divided into eleven part, namely: oral
introduction, body of speech, summary, attire, performance,
participants’ knowledge, audience attention, creativity, topic focus,
sources and overall impression.

B. The Concept of Video Project

1. The Definition of Video
According to Siemens, Gašević, & Dawson (2015) “Education
technology has gone through three distinct generations of

6
Noel R Jackson, Anthony E Ward. 2015. Assessing Public Speaking a Trial Rubric to
Speed Up and Standardise Feedback. University of York. p. 2
 development and now a fourth is emerging’. This fourth generation
includes ‘distributed and digitally shaped technologies: adaptive
learning, distributed infrastructures and competency models.” Video
is defined here as digitally recorded content that has sound and
motion that can be stored or delivered live, and can be streamed to
a variety of devices7. It may or may not have the lecturer visible and
can include an animated film, or a demonstration.
2. The Definition of Project
David I. Cleland states “Projects are the building blocks in the
design and execution of strategies for an organization. Projects
provide an organizational focus for conceptualizing, designing, and
creating new or improved products, service, and organizational
processes.” In addition, according to Project Management Institute
(PMI), “A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a
unique product, service, or result.” Therefore, a project is an activity
perform by a person to produce a product or achieve the target.
3. The Definition of Video Project
Video project is an activity do by some of people to produce a
video start from the idea, shooting, editing and serving. Drawing on
Shephard’s research agenda regarding the use of videos as an
innovative teaching tool, this paper is aimed at exploring the effect
of the use of videos for assessing the enhancement of students’
learning motivation. Videos are entertaining and help to studying
some technical concepts which are difficult to understand without a
graphical representation.
4. Characteristics of Video Project

7
Zac Woolfitt. 2015. The Effective Use of Video In Higher Education. Learning and
Technology Inholland University. p. 4
 According to Teaching in a Digital Age, the characteristic of video is
following below:
a. Demonstrate experiments or experimental situations.
b. Illustrate principle involving dynamic change or movement.
c. Bring students primary resource or case-study material.
d. Demonstrate methods or techniques.
e. Record and archive events that are crucial to topics in a
course.
5. The Function of Video Project
The function of video project according to Macquarie University,
it following below:
a. Facilitating thinking and problem solving
Allam (2006) observes that the creative challenge of using
moving images and sound to communicate a topic indeed
engaging and insightful, but adds that it also enables students
to acquire a range of transferable skill in addition to filmmaking
itself.
b. Assisting with mastery learning
In some cases, video can be as good as an instructor in
communicating facts or demonstrating procedures to assist in
mastery learning where a student can view complex clinical or
mechanical procedures as many times as they need to.
Furthermore, the interactive features of modern web-based
media players can be used to promote ‘active viewing’
approaches with students (Galbraith, 2004).
c. Inspiring and engaging students
Willmot (2012) show that there is strong evidence that digital
video reporting can inspire and engage students when
incorporated into student-center learning activites through:
 increased student motivation, enhanced learning experience,
high marks, etc.
d. Authentic learning opportunity
The work of Kearney and colleagues show the benefits of
using video to produce authentic learning opportunities for
students, and how ‘ivideos’ encourage academic rigour from
an advocacy, research based prespective.
6. The Types of Video Project
Video does not simply tell a message, instead video displays
the meaning – video is the ultimate show and tell. There are five
types of videos, it following below:
a. Education Video
Educational videos are excellent examples of teaching and
learning concepts. As video uses the primary sense of sight and
sound, using video in education allows concepts to be taught
more easily.
b. Promotional Video
Promotional videos have become exceptionally popular with
the convenience of fast wireless internet, powerful mobile
devices and businesses realizing that they can afford and use
video with their marketing.
c. Informational Video
These are the most simplistic types of videos. These videos
give the ‘what’ on a topic, but do not go much deeper, so ‘why’
is often left largely unexplored.
d. Documentary Film (and Video)
Documentaries are typically a mix of entertainment and
information dispensing and very popular.
e. Entertainment Video
 Entertaining videos can vary in scope, genre, and purpose.
The fun stuff, entertaining videos simply for entertainment’s
sake.
7. The Advantages of Video Project
According Priya Kulkarni (2016), there is the advantages of
video project, it following below:

a. It gives students clear concept clarity, as everything can be

visualized and explained in detail.
b. Visuals tend to be more interesting and engaging, when
compared to text.
c. Students who are good visual learners have a lot of advantages
studying from videos. They can learn more efficiently.
d. It helps retain and maintain interest for longer periods of
time.
e. It provides an innovative and effective means for educators
to address and deliver the required curriculum content.
8. The Disadvantages of Video Project
However, there is the disadvantages of video project, it
following below:

 Playing video can use a lot of the bandwidth and may

take time to load.
 The video could be a distraction if the structure of the
video is not aligned to what needs to be taught.
 It is hard and time consuming to find quality videos.
 Money and resources to do project.
 Time to product/Learning curve of doing multi-media
projects.
 9. How to Teach Using Video
According to Kerry Creaswood, there are three stages to teach
using video, it following below:
a. Stage 1: Teaching strategies for brainstorming and
conceptualizations
The specific type of video project can be regarding the
material, topic, etc. To setting it can be used brainstorming.
First, decide on what kind of video presentation that should
be present. Then, choose a topic or focal point. Next,
prepare all tools, equipment and necessary requirements.
b. Stage 2: Video Creation/Production
In implementation of this stage, by determine the schedule
and timeframe. Then, editing by add special effect or cut
unnecessary parts for polishing.
c. Stage 3: Presentation
In this stage, the teacher can see how much effort the
students exerted in creating the video project as well as how
they applied theories into practice.
C. Theoretical Hypothesis
In line with the question of the study, the writer formulates two
hypotheses that be tested by t-test. Hypotheses are formulated to draw
a connection between two variables8. According to Creswell, there are
two kinds of hypothesis which have to be made before the researchers
do their experimental research. The two hypotheses are null
hypothesis (Ho) and alternative hypothesis (Ha).

D. Statistical Hypothesis

8
John W. Creswell. 2008. Education Research 3rd edition. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice
Hall. p. 134.
1. The Null Hypothesis (Ho)
The writer formulates the null hypothesis (Ho) as follows:
“Using video project is not effective on students’ public speaking
ability at the eleventh grade students of SMA BINTARA Depok.”
2. The Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
This hypothesis is the null hypothesis opposite. It is examined
statistically. The writer formulates the alternative hypothesis (Ha) as
follows:
“Using video project is effective on students’ public speaking ability
at the eleventh grade students of SMA BINTARA Depok.”