17.
1 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND DIAGRAMS
An electric circuit is a connection of electrical parts that allows electric
current to flow. It usually includes wires (conductors), a power source like
a battery, a load such as a lamp, and a switch to control the current. A
circuit must form a closed loop so electricity can travel from the source
and back. For safety, insulated wires are used instead of bare ones.
Electric circuits have two types of elements:
1- Active elements – supply or produce energy (e.g. battery, generator)
2- Passive elements – absorb or store energy (e.g. resistor, capacitor,
inductor)
A circuit diagram is a simple drawing that shows how all components are
connected with electrical wires, which are represented as straight lines in
a circuit diagram. It uses symbols to represent each part, making it easy
to understand how current flows and how voltage, current, and resistance
are related
17.2 RESISTORS
Tiny electronic components help control the flow of electricity, and one
important component is the resistor. A resistor is used to provide a
specific resistance in a circuit. It is a passive component, meaning they
consume a small amount of electrical energy and dissipate it as heat
helping to control the power flow
The most common type is the carbon resistor, which has a ceramic core
on which a thin layer of crystalline carbon is [Link] these
resistors are very small, their resistance value is shown using a color
code instead of numbers. Usually, three color bands show the value —
the first two represent digits, and the third shows the decimal multiplier.
A fourth band (gold or silver) shows tolerance; if no band is present, the
tolerance is 20%.
For example the first digit is 5 (green) the second digit is 6 (blue) decimal
multiplier is 3 (orange) written as 10³ and
tolerance = 5% written as:
56 × 10³. ±5%
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Linear Resistors
Linear resistors are those that obey Ohm’s Law, meaning the current is
directly proportional to the applied voltage (V ∝ I). Their resistance value
changes only with voltage and temperature. They are of two types:
A. Fixed Resistors
Have a single constant resistance value.
Commonly made of carbon or other materials.
Can handle high voltages but are less stable (resistance changes more
with temperature).
B. Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are those whose resistance can be adjusted as
needed. Their value is changed by a mechanical movement, such as
turning a knob or sliding a contact.
These resistors are usually wire-wound, meaning a wire of known
resistance is wound around an insulating material. Since the resistance
of a wire increases with its length, a sliding contact is used to change the
effective length of the wire, and thus the resistance.
Nickel and chromium are commonly used as wire materials because they
have a low temperature coefficient, making them stable and accurate.
• When used to control current, they are called rheostats.
• When used to divide voltage, they are called potentiometers.
A potential divider (or voltage divider) is a simple circuit that divides an
input voltage into smaller output voltages. It produces an output voltage
that is a fraction of the input voltage, depending on the ratio of
resistances used.
Derivation
When a fixed voltage (V) is applied across the ends of a wire-wound
variable resistor having total resistance R, the current (I) is given by
Ohm’s Law:
I = V/R
Since the slider contact (C) can move along the resistor, if R₂ is the
resistance of the part of the wire between points B and C, then the
potential difference (V₂) across that part is:
V2 = I × R2
Similarly, for the other part,
V1 = I × R1
Dividing both equations gives:
V1/V2 = R1/R2
And putting I = V/R in the equation gives:
V2 = R2/R
This means the potential difference (V₂) is a fraction of the total voltage
(V) depending on where the slider is placed. By moving the slider, the
output voltage can be changed from zero up to the full voltage (V).
Since V₂ is the output voltage (Vout) and V is the input voltage (Vin), and
R = R1 + R2
we can write:
Vout = R2/R1 + R2 × Vin
If both resistances are equal (R₁ = R₂ = r), then:
Vout = r/ r + r × Vin
Therefore, Vout = 1/2 Vin
his means the input voltage is divided into two equal halves at the output.
Uses: Potential dividers are used in electronics to adjust or measure
voltage levels. Common examples include volume control knobs in
sound systems and sensor circuits using LDRs (light-dependent
resistors) and thermistors.
NON LINEAR RESISTORS
In non-linear resistors, the resistance changes with temperature, light, or
voltage. They do not follow Ohm’s Law. These are mainly of three types —
Thermistors, Varistors, and Photoresistors (LDRs).
A. Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistance
changes greatly with temperature. It is made of semiconductor ceramic
or polymer materials.
There are two main types:
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): Resistance increases when
temperature rises.
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): Resistance decreases when
temperature rises
Uses of Thermistors
a. Inrush Current Limiter:
When an electrical device is turned on, it draws a large starting current
called inrush current. For example, a bulb takes high current until its
filament heats up. NTC thermistors control this by having high resistance
at first, which limits the large current. As they warm up, resistance
decreases, allowing normal current flow.
b. Overheating Alarm:
NTC thermistors are used in motors, transformers, and generators to
detect overheating. At low temperatures, their resistance is high, so only
a small current flows. When the temperature rises, resistance drops,
allowing more current to reach the alarm system, which then activates.
The same principle works in fire alarms and thermostats.
c. Temperature Measurement:
Because a thermistor’s resistance changes accurately with temperature,
it gives precise temperature readings. That’s why it’s used in
thermometers, temperature sensors, and control systems to detect and
respond to temperature changes quickly
B. VARISTORS (VDR):
A varistor, also called a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), is a type of
non-linear resistor used to protect electrical circuits from high voltage
spikes. These spikes can occur due to lightning or power line faults.
When the voltage increases suddenly, the varistor’s resistance decreases,
allowing it to absorb extra voltage and keep the circuit at a safe level.
Varistors are usually made of metal oxide materials, most commonly
zinc oxide (ZnO) mixed with bismuth, cobalt, and manganese. The grain
boundaries inside the ceramic material act as non-linear junctions, which
give the varistor its voltage-dependent behavior
C. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also called a photoresistor or
photocell, is a light-sensitive device whose resistance changes with light
intensity. In low light, the resistance is high, and when light increases, the
resistance decreases.
LDRs are made from materials like cadmium sulfide (CdS) or lead sulfide
(PbS). Their surface has a serpentine pattern to expose more area to
light, allowing them to detect light levels effectively.
They are widely used in automatic lighting systems, cameras, and
security devices. LDRs are simple, low-cost, and reliable, making them
useful in many light-sensing applications.
17.4 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
For any group of resistors that follow Ohm’s Law, we can find a single
resistor that would give the same total current and voltage as the whole
combination. The resistance of this single resistor is called the
equivalent resistance (Req).
Resistors in Series
When resistors are connected in series, the current (I) passing through
each resistor is the same, because there is only one path for the current
to flow. However, the voltage (V) is divided among the resistors.
For example, if three identical bulbs are connected in series to a 12 V
battery, each bulb gets 4 V. If the resistors have different values, the
voltage across each resistor is proportional to its resistance.
If V is a total potential difference then by ohm's law (V = IR) we can write
for each resistor:
V1 = IR1. V2 = IR2. V3 = IR3
The total voltage we across all resistors is the sum of the voltages
across each resistor:
V = V1+ V2 + V3
Substituting the values gives:
V = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Since the equivalent resistance (Req) is given by:
Req = V/I
By combining we get:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore for any number of resistors connected in series:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 +.............+ Rn
The equivalent resistance in a series circuit is always greater than any
single resistor in the combination.
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each resistor is the same, but the
current is divided among them. The total current from the power supply
equals the sum of the currents through each resistor. Since there are
multiple paths, if one resistor or device stops working, the others
continue to work — like bulbs in a multi-bulb fixture.
For resistors in parallel, as shown in figure 17.11, the potential difference
(V) is the same across all resistors.
By Ohm’s Law,
I₁ = V / R₁, I₂ = V / R₂, I₃ = V / R3
The total current (I) is a sum of the three currents in the resistors:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Substituting the values gives:
I = V(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) or
I/V = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
The equivalent resistance is: I/V = 1/Req
Therefore: 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
For any number of resistors connected in parallel:
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4.......
The equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit is always less than any
single resistor. That’s why household appliances are connected in parallel
— so if one is switched off or stops working, the others still work
properly.
The main difference between series and parallel circuits is how they
behave if a component fails. In a series circuit, all devices are connected
in one path, so if one (like a bulb or fuse) fails, the whole circuit stops
working (Figure 17.12a).
In a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for current to flow. Each
device is independently connected to the power source, so if one device
fails, the others keep working (Figure 17.12b). This is why parallel circuits
are used in homes — they allow independent control of each device. For
example, you can turn off one light without affecting the others. This
makes parallel connections more practical, flexible, and reliable.
COMBINATION OF EMF sources
Combination of emf sources means connecting two or more batteries (or
emf sources) together to get a combined effect. These combinations are
of two types — series and parallel.
SERIES COMBINATION OF EMF SOURCES
In a series combination, the positive terminal of one battery is connected
to the negative terminal of the next battery, and this continues for all the
batteries. Finally, the negative terminal of the first battery and the positive
terminal of the last battery are connected to the rest of the circuit, such
as bulbs or fans, as shown in Figure 17.13.
Here, four batteries are connected in series, where the EMF of all
batteries are added and provide the resultant EMF (6V) to the circuit
Mathematically:
Enet = E1 + E2 + E3 + .....+ En
This combination is used when a higher voltage is needed than what one
battery can provide, while the ampere-hour (Ah) rating stays the same.
For example, if each of the four batteries is 1.5 V, 2.5 Ah, the total output
will be 6.0 V, 2.5 Ah.
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF EMF SOURCES
In a parallel combination, the positive terminals of all batteries are
connected together, and the negative terminals are also connected
together. The load (like a bulb or fan) is then connected across one
positive and one negative terminal, as shown in Figure 17.14.
When identical batteries (for example, each of 12 V) are connected in
parallel, the total emf remains the same as one battery, i.e., 12 V.
Mathematically:
Enet = E1 = E2 = E3 =.....= En
This setup is used when a higher ampere-hour (Ah) is needed while
keeping the voltage [Link] example, if three batteries of 12 V, 2 Ah
each are connected in parallel, the total output will be 12 V, 6 Ah.
17.6 ELECTRICITY AND ITS USES
Electricity is very important in our daily lives, following are the
applications of electricity:
A. Heating:
Electricity is very useful for heating purposes, especially in cold weather.
Electric heaters—like room heaters or central heating systems—convert
electrical energy into heat energy to keep homes and buildings warm. In
the same way, electric stoves use electrical resistance in their heating
elements to produce heat for cooking food.
Electricity helps us stay warm and cook meals easily by converting
electrical energy into heat energy efficiently.
B. Lighting:
Electricity provides light that helps us see clearly both indoors and
outdoors, no matter the time of day. Electric bulbs brighten our homes,
making it easy to read, cook, or relax comfortably.
Outside, streetlights use electricity to light up roads and pathways,
ensuring safety and visibility for people and vehicles at night. Electric
lighting makes our surroundings bright, safe, and comfortable, playing an
important role in our daily life
C. Powering Motors:
Electric motors are used to run many machines and appliances by
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. They power
everyday devices like washing machines, fans, and vacuum cleaners, as
well as industrial machines such as conveyor belts and factory
equipment. In electric vehicles (EVs), motors provide power for
movement, making them a clean and eco-friendly alternative to fuel
engines.
Electric motors help run machines, household appliances, and vehicles,
making work faster, easier, and more efficient.
D. Batter Charging:
In today’s world, we use many portable electronic devices like
smartphones, laptops, and tablets that work on rechargeable batteries.
Electricity is used to charge these batteries, restoring the energy they
need to run. Whether at home, work, or while traveling, electricity keeps
our devices powered and ready to use anytime we need them.
E. Powering Electronic System
Electricity powers almost all our electronic systems — from computers,
TVs, and refrigerators to air conditioners, smartphones, and gaming
consoles. These devices help us work, communicate, stay entertained,
and live comfortably. In short, electricity makes modern life easier,
smarter, and more connected
17.7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
When a voltage source like a battery is connected to a device such as a
bulb, it supplies electrical energy to it. A potential difference (V) is
created across the ends of the device. This potential difference can be
given as:
V = W/q = E/q. Or. E= qv
And since electric charge (q) = It
We get:
E = It V. (eq 1)
The shows the electrical energy consumed by a device from ohm's law (V
= IR) therefore the electrical energy from (eq 1) can be written as:
E = I²Rt
From ohm's law 'I = V/R' therefore the electrical energy 'E' can also be
written as:
E = V²/R × t
17.8 ELECTRIC POWER
The rate at which electrical work is done by a voltage source (like a
battery) to maintain current in a circuit is called electric power. In other
words, the electrical energy consumed by a device per unit time called
electrical power mathematically:
P = E/t. (eq 1)
As we know that electrical energy 'E = It V putting in (eq 1)
P = ItV/t
Therefore: P = IV. (eq 17.2)
From ohm's law (V = IR) putting in equation 17.2:
P = I² R. (eq 17.3)
Also from ohm's law ' I = V/R'
Putting in equation 17.12:
P = V²/R
The SI unit of electrical power is watt (W). Power is '1W' when a voltage
of '1V' makes a current of 1 ampere (1A) flow in a circuit
HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Even though household circuits use alternating current (AC), their
working can be understood using the same circuit principles we studied.
In home wiring, all electrical appliances are connected in parallel. For
example, if a bulb in a kitchen lamp burns out, other appliances like the
coffee maker or fan will still work properly.
Also, most household appliances are made to work at about 220 volts. If
they were connected in series, each appliance would get only a part of
the 220 V and would not function correctly.
HOUSEHOLD WIRING SYSTEM
A mains circuit has three main wires — the live wire, neutral wire, and
earth wire, as shown in figure 17.17. Each of these wires plays an
important role in the safe distribution of electricity in homes and
industries.
The live wire (also called the line wire) carries current from the power
source to the electrical devices. It provides the voltage needed to make
the devices work.
The neutral wire completes the electric circuit by giving the current a
return path back to the power source. It carries the same amount of
current as the live wire but in the opposite direction.
The earth wire (or ground wire) is a safety wire. It provides a low-
resistance path for electric current to flow safely into the ground in case
of a fault (like short circuit or leakage). This helps prevent electric shocks
and reduces the risk of fire, keeping both people and appliances safe
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
In modern homes, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses for safety.
One common type has a bimetallic strip (shown in figure 17.19). When
too much current flows through it, the strip heats up and bends, which
breaks the circuit (this is called tripping). Once it cools down, the breaker
can be reset. Some breakers also use magnetic action to trip the circuit.
If a fuse blows or a breaker trips, it means the circuit is using too much
current. The cause should be found and fixed before replacing the fuse or
resetting the breaker. Never use a fuse with a higher current rating, as it
can cause damage or fire.
Adding a third grounding wire increases safety. It provides a low-
resistance path for current to flow safely into the ground if a hot wire
touches a metal casing. This makes the fuse blow or breaker trip,
preventing electric shocks and keeping users safe
RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICES
Residual-Current Devices (RCDs) or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
(GFCIs) are modern safety devices that protect people from electric
shocks and electrical fires. They work by comparing the current in the live
(hot) and neutral wires of a circuit. Normally, the current flowing in both
wires is equal and opposite.
For example, if 10 amperes flow through both wires of an electric kettle,
the circuit is balanced. But if a fault occurs — like someone touching a
faulty appliance — some current may flow through the person to the
ground (say 0.1 ampere). Now, the live wire carries 10.1 A, while the
neutral wire still has 10 A.
The RCD detects this small difference (as low as 0.005 ampere or 5
milliamperes) and quickly cuts off the power, preventing electric shock
and keeping people safe.