🧬 BIOLOGY NOTES
1. Cells
● Cell = basic unit of life.
● Plant cells have: cell wall, chloroplast, vacuole.
● Animal cells don’t have these.
● Specialised cells:
○ Red blood cell → carries oxygen (contains haemoglobin, no nucleus).
○ Root hair cell → absorbs water (large surface area).
2. Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport
● Diffusion – movement of particles from high to low concentration. (No energy)
● Osmosis – movement of water from high → low water potential through a membrane.
● Active transport – movement against concentration gradient using energy (ATP).
3. Nutrition (Plants & Animals)
Plants
● Photosynthesis:
CO₂ + H₂O → glucose + O₂ (needs light + chlorophyll)
● Plants use nitrates for proteins, magnesium for chlorophyll.
Humans
● Carbohydrates = energy
● Proteins = growth + repair
● Fats = insulation + stored energy
● Fibre = prevents constipation
● Water = transport + reactions
4. Enzymes
● Biological catalysts that speed up reactions.
● Work best at optimum temperature and pH.
● High heat denatures them (changes active site).
5. Respiration
● Aerobic: glucose + oxygen → CO₂ + H₂O (+ lots of energy)
● Anaerobic (humans): glucose → lactic acid (+ little energy)
● Anaerobic (yeast): glucose → alcohol + CO₂
6. Reproduction
● Asexual – one parent, no variation (clones).
● Sexual – two parents, variation.
● Male reproductive system: testes, sperm duct, urethra, penis.
● Female: ovary, oviduct, uterus, vagina.
🧪 CHEMISTRY NOTES
1. States of Matter
● Solid – fixed shape, particles close.
● Liquid – shape changes, particles slide.
● Gas – particles far apart, move fast.
2. Atomic Structure
● Proton = +1 charge, in nucleus
● Neutron = 0 charge, in nucleus
● Electron = –1 charge, in shells
● Atomic number = number of protons
● Mass number = protons + neutrons
3. Bonding
Ionic bonding
● Metal + non-metal
● Transfer of electrons → positive & negative ions
Covalent bonding
● Non-metal + non-metal
● Sharing electrons
4. Acids & Bases
● Acid: pH 1–6, gives H⁺ ions
● Base/Alkali: pH 8–14, gives OH⁻ ions
● Neutralisation: acid + base → salt + water
Examples:
● Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
● Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide → potassium sulfate + water
5. Periodic Table
● Group number = electrons in outer shell
● Period number = number of shells
● Group 1 (alkali metals): very reactive, get more reactive down the group.
● Group 7 (halogens): reactive, get less reactive down the group.
6. Rates of Reaction
Increase rate by:
● Higher temperature
● Higher concentration
● Larger surface area
● Using a catalyst
⚡ PHYSICS NOTES
1. Speed, Distance, Time
● Speed = distance ÷ time
● Velocity = speed + direction
● Acceleration = change in velocity ÷ time
Units:
● Speed → m/s
● Distance → m
● Time → s
2. Forces
● Force measured in newtons (N).
● Balanced forces → no change in motion.
● Unbalanced forces → acceleration.
Types: friction, weight, normal reaction, tension, air resistance.
3. Density
● Density = mass ÷ volume
● Units: g/cm³ or kg/m³
4. Energy
● Kinetic energy = ½mv²
● GPE (gravitational) = mgh
● Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed.
5. Electricity
● Current (I) = flow of electrons
● Voltage (V) = energy per charge
● Resistance (R) = V ÷ I
Series circuit:
● Current same everywhere
● Voltage shared
Parallel circuit:
● Voltage same
● Current shared
6. Waves
● Transverse waves: light, water
● Longitudinal waves: sound
● Wave speed = frequency × wavelength