JEEsociety - Properties of Matter 1

JEEsociety
Chapter: Properties of Matter

Part 1: Hydrostatics

1 Pressure in Fluids

Definition

Fluids are substances that can flow, such as liquids and gases. Hydrostatics is the
study of fluids at rest.

• Thrust: The total normal force exerted by a fluid on a surface in contact with
it.

• Pressure (P): The thrust exerted per unit area. It is a scalar quantity.

Fnormal
P =
A
The SI unit is the Pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 .

Pressure Variation with Depth

The pressure in a fluid of uniform density ρ increases with depth. The pressure P
at a depth h below the surface is given by:

P = P0 + hρg

where P0 is the pressure at the surface (usually atmospheric pressure) and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. The term hρg is known as the gauge pressure.

Hydrostatic Paradox

The pressure at a certain depth in a fluid depends only on the depth and the
nature of the fluid, not on the shape of the container or the total amount of fluid.
This means the pressure at the bottom of vessels with different shapes will be the
same if they are filled to the same height.
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2 Pascal’s Law and Archimedes’ Principle

Definition

Pascal’s Law states that a pressure change applied to an enclosed, incompressible

fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of
the containing vessel.

Application: Hydraulic Lift

Pascal’s law is the principle behind hydraulic systems. A small force F1 applied
to a small piston of area A1 creates a pressure change P = F1 /A1 . This pressure
is transmitted to a larger piston of area A2 , generating a large upward force F2 =
P × A2 .  
F1 F2 A2
= =⇒ F2 = F1
A1 A2 A1
Since A2 > A1 , the force is multiplied.

Definition

Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is partially or fully immersed in

a fluid, it experiences an upward buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body.

Buoyant Force (FB )

FB = Vsubmerged · ρf luid · g
where Vsubmerged is the volume of the part of the body that is submerged, and ρf luid
is the density of the fluid. The buoyant force acts at the center of buoyancy, which
is the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
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3 Floatation and Density

Laws of Floatation

For a body of weight W immersed in a fluid, let the maximum buoyant force be
FB .

• If W > FB , the body will sink.

• If W < FB , the body will float partially submerged.

• If W = FB , the body will float fully submerged.

In the floating condition, the weight of the body equals the weight of the fluid it
displaces.

Fraction of Volume Submerged

For a floating body of volume Vbody and density ρbody in a fluid of density ρf luid :

Vsubmerged ρbody
=
Vbody ρf luid

The fraction of volume outside the fluid is:

Vout ρbody
=1−
Vbody ρf luid

3.1 Density of Mixtures

• Mixing by Mass: If two liquids of masses m1 , m2 and densities ρ1 , ρ2 are mixed:
m1 + m2
ρmixture = m1
ρ1
+ mρ22
2ρ1 ρ2
If masses are equal (m1 = m2 ), this becomes the harmonic mean: ρmixture = ρ1 +ρ2
.
• Mixing by Volume: If two liquids of volumes V1 , V2 and densities ρ1 , ρ2 are
mixed (assuming no change in total volume):
ρ1 V1 + ρ2 V2
ρmixture =
V1 + V2
If volumes are equal (V1 = V2 ), this becomes the arithmetic mean: ρmixture =
ρ1 +ρ2
2
.

Part 2: Hydrodynamics
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4 Fluid Flow and Equation of Continuity

Definition

Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.

• Streamline Flow: A flow in which every particle of the fluid follows the
same path as the preceding particle. The flow is smooth and orderly.

• Turbulent Flow: An irregular, disordered flow that occurs at high velocities.

• Ideal Fluid: An imaginary fluid that is incompressible (density is constant)

and non-viscous (has no internal friction).

Equation of Continuity

For an ideal fluid in streamline flow, the product of the cross-sectional area (A)
and the fluid velocity (v) is constant at all points along a pipe.

A1 v1 = A2 v2 or Av = constant

This is a statement of the conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid. It

implies that the fluid speeds up in narrower sections and slows down in wider
sections.

A1 A2
v1 v2

Since A1 > A2 , it follows that v2 > v1 .

Figure 1: Equation of continuity for streamline flow.

5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Definition

For an ideal fluid in streamline flow, Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of the
pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy per unit volume is constant.
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Bernoulli’s Equation

1
P + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
where P is the pressure, ρ is the density, v is the velocity, g is gravity, and h is the
height. This is a statement of the conservation of energy for a flowing fluid.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

For horizontal flow (h=constant), the equation simplifies to P + 12 ρv 2 = constant.

This means that where the velocity is high, the pressure is low, and vice-versa.
This principle explains:

• The lift on an airplane wing.

• The working of an atomizer or paint sprayer.

• The Magnus effect on a spinning ball.

5.1 Torricelli’s Theorem (Velocity of Efflux)

The speed of a liquid flowing out of a small hole (orifice) at a depth h below the free
surface is the same as the speed a body would acquire in falling freely from that height.
p
vef f lux = 2gh

6 Viscosity and Stoke’s Law

Definition

Viscosity is the property of a fluid that represents its internal friction. It is the
resistance of a fluid to flow. The viscous force F between two layers of a fluid is
given by Newton’s law of viscosity:

dv
F = −ηA
dx
dv
where η is the coefficient of viscosity, A is the area of the layers, and dx
is the
velocity gradient.
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Stoke’s Law

The viscous drag force FD on a small sphere of radius r moving with a velocity v
through a fluid of viscosity η is:

FD = 6πηrv

6.1 Terminal Velocity (vT )

When an object falls through a viscous fluid, it eventually reaches a constant velocity
called terminal velocity. This occurs when the downward force of gravity is balanced
by the upward forces of buoyancy and viscous drag.

W = F B + FD

Key Formula

The terminal velocity of a sphere of density ρ and radius r falling through a fluid
of density σ and viscosity η is:

2 r2 (ρ − σ)g
vT =
9 η

Part 3: Surface Tension

7 Molecular Forces and Surface Tension

Definition

• Cohesive Force: The force of attraction between molecules of the same sub-
stance.

• Adhesive Force: The force of attraction between molecules of different sub-

stances.

• Surface Tension (S): A property of a liquid that allows it to resist an external

force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. It is the tendency of liquids
to shrink into the minimum surface area possible.
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Surface Tension

Surface tension can be defined in two ways:

1. As the force per unit length acting on an imaginary line on the liquid’s sur-
face.
F
S=
L
2. As the work done (or surface energy) per unit increase in surface area.

W
S=
∆A

The SI unit is N/m or J/m2 .

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

• Temperature: Surface tension of liquids generally decreases as temperature

increases.

• Impurities: Soluble impurities (like salt) increase surface tension, while par-
tially soluble impurities (like soap) decrease it.

8 Surface Energy and Excess Pressure

Work Done and Surface Energy

The work done to increase the surface area of a liquid by ∆A is stored as surface
potential energy.
W = ∆U = S · ∆A

• For a liquid drop of radius R (one surface): ∆A = 4πR2 .

• For a soap bubble of radius R (two surfaces): ∆A = 2 × 4πR2 = 8πR2 .

Excess Pressure Inside a Drop/Bubble

Due to surface tension, the pressure inside a curved liquid surface is greater than
the pressure outside.
2S
• Inside a Liquid Drop: ∆P = Pin − Pout = R
4S
• Inside a Soap Bubble: ∆P = Pin − Pout = R
(The factor is 4 because a
bubble has two surfaces).
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9 Angle of Contact and Capillarity

Definition

The angle of contact (θ) is the angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at
the point of contact and the solid surface inside the liquid.

Fc (Cohesion)Fa (Adhesion) Fc Fa

Water on Glass (Fa > Fc ) Mercury on Glass (Fc > Fa )

Concave Meniscus, θ < 90◦ Convex Meniscus, θ > 90◦

Figure 2: The meniscus shape depends on adhesive vs cohesive forces (angle of con-
tact).

Definition

Capillarity is the phenomenon of the rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube (a

capillary tube) due to surface tension.

Capillary Rise (Ascent Formula)

The height (h) to which a liquid of density ρ and surface tension S rises in a
capillary tube of radius r is given by Jurin’s Law:

2S cos θ
h=
rρg

• If θ < 90◦ (e.g., water in glass), cos θ is positive and the liquid rises.

• If θ > 90◦ (e.g., mercury in glass), cos θ is negative and the liquid is de-
pressed.
JEEsociety - Elasticity 1

JEEsociety
Chapter: Elasticity

1 Fundamental Concepts of Elasticity

Definition

• Elasticity: The property of a body to regain its original shape and size after
the removal of a deforming force.

• Plasticity: The property of a body to not regain its original shape and size
after the removal of a deforming force.

• Elastic Limit: The maximum deforming force up to which a body exhibits

elasticity. Beyond this limit, the body becomes permanently deformed.

1.1 Stress and Strain

• Stress: The internal restoring force developed per unit area of a deformed body.
It measures the internal forces that molecules of a material exert on each other.
Restoring Force F
Stress = =
Area A
The SI unit is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).

• Strain: The fractional change in the configuration (length, volume, or shape) of

a body.
Change in configuration
Strain =
Original configuration
Strain is a dimensionless quantity.

F
F
θ
Longitudinal Stress
Shearing Stress
Volumetric Stress

Figure 1: Visual representation of the three types of stress and strain.

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Hooke’s Law

Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

Stress = E × Strain

where E is the constant of proportionality, known as the Modulus of Elasticity.

2 Moduli of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of a material’s stiffness. There are three types:

1. Young’s Modulus (Y): The ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain. It relates
to the stiffness of a material against a change in length.

Normal Stress F/A FL

Y = = =
Longitudinal Strain ∆L/L A∆L

2. Bulk Modulus (K): The ratio of volumetric stress (pressure) to volumetric strain.
It relates to the resistance of a material to compression.

Volumetric Stress ∆P ∆P
K= = = −V
Volumetric Strain −∆V /V ∆V

The reciprocal of the Bulk Modulus is called Compressibility (C = 1/K).

3. Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (η): The ratio of tangential stress to

shearing strain. It relates to the stiffness of a material against a change in shape.

Tangential Stress F/A

η= =
Shearing Strain θ

2.1 Poisson’s Ratio (σ)

Definition

When a wire is stretched longitudinally, it contracts laterally. Poisson’s ratio is the

ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.

Lateral Strain −∆R/R

σ= =
Longitudinal Strain ∆L/L

The negative sign indicates that the radius decreases as the length increases. The
practical value of σ lies between 0 and 0.5.
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Relations Between Elastic Moduli

9 3 1
Y = 2η(1 + σ) | Y = 3K(1 − 2σ) | = +
Y η K

3 Stress-Strain Relationship

Definition

The stress-strain curve is a graphical representation of a material’s mechanical

properties.

Elastic Limit
Ultimate Tensile Strength
B (Yield Point)
Stress C D
Proportional
A Limit Fracture Point

O Strain
Elastic RegionPlastic Region

Figure 2: A typical stress-strain curve for a ductile material.

Interpretation of the Curve

• Region OA (Elastic): Stress is proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law holds).

The material returns to its original shape if the stress is removed.

• Point B (Elastic Limit): The maximum stress the material can withstand
without permanent deformation.

• Region BD (Plastic): The material undergoes permanent deformation even

after the stress is removed.

• Point C (Ultimate Tensile Strength): The maximum stress the material can
handle before it starts to fail.

• Point D (Fracture Point): The point where the material breaks.

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4 Elastic Potential Energy

Definition

When a wire is stretched, work is done against the interatomic forces, which is
stored in the wire as elastic potential energy.

Elastic Potential Energy (U)

The energy stored in a wire stretched by a length ∆L is:

1 1
U= × Stretching Force × Elongation = F ∆L
2 2
The elastic potential energy per unit volume (energy density) is:

U 1 1
u= = × Stress × Strain = Y (Strain)2
Volume 2 2