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OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE RELAYS.

2.1 Time-current characteristics of overcurrent relays.

Concept I2t.
They represent the energy dissipated during the short circuit in a resistance of 1
Ohmio provides an idea of the energy that the circuit breaker allows to pass through during the
short circuit and that dissipates in part of the protected installation, which allows calculating the
temperature that the cables downstream of the switch will reach.

t–c curves.
As already mentioned before, the operating time must be taken into account,
overcurrent relays can be classified into two types: instantaneous and
timed.
•Instantaneous: an instantaneous relay is referred to as a device that operates in a

time less than or equal to 50 ms or 3 cycles. They present an immediate trigger when the
the observed current reaches the adjustment value.
•Timed: a timed relay is referred to as a device that operates for a time
after the fault detection, when the observed current reaches the value
of adjustment. According to their time-current operational characteristics, they are classified into

inverse time and defined time.

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Taking into account the operating characteristics, overcurrent relays

they can be classified into three types: defined current, defined current and time, and
reverse time.
Defined current relays: in this type of relay, an operation is presented
snapshot when the current reaches a preset value (Ia). The adjustment of this relay is
make it so that the furthest end of the source operates at the lowest value of
Currently and progressively, the adjustments increase as it approaches the
source. According to this, the device with the lowest setting operates first and disconnects the load.

at the point closest to the fault. This type of protection has the disadvantage of being limited
selective for high short-circuit values.
Defined current relay curve

Current defined and time defined relays: this type of relay allows for adjustment
operation for different current levels with different operating times. For the
Both adjustments are made in such a way that the switch supplying the load is triggered.
en el tiempo más corto y después sucesivamente los demás interruptores hacia la fuente,
in increasingly greater times. The difference between the shooting times for the same
current is called margin or backup time.
Current-time relay curve

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Inverse time relays: the fundamental property of these relays is that they operate in
a time inversely proportional to the fault current according to a group
available characteristic curves.
Therefore, the advantage of these relays over the previous ones is that they can handle high currents.

Very short trigger times can be achieved without sacrificing selectivity.

Inverse time relay curve.

Inverse time relays are classified according to the characteristic curve that
determine the speed of operation in: inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse
defined time.

Construction and variants

Within the different types of relays, we can find the following types:
Instantaneous and defined static time relays.
•Digital relays (numeric or microprocessed).

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Instantaneous and defined time static relay:

Static relays lack moving parts, the terminology related to the adjustment and
The operation is similar to that used in electromechanical relays. The relays
about current they use the following basic circuits:
Rectifier, whose function is to convert an input of alternating current into a
tension signal, capable of being measured and compared.
•Level detector, which compares an analog input with a preset level, the
which responds with an analog output when this level is exceeded.
Timers to delay in a constant manner or provide the input
analog current.
Three-phase instantaneous and time static overcurrent relay.

Operating principle.
The alternating current that powers the relay is converted into DC voltage by
through a current transformer, a rectifier bridge, and a load resistor
connected in parallel, this voltage is compared with a preset level in the detector of
level number 1, which generates a pulse to the timer when the level is exceeded. The
timer responds to a time in seconds. In the case of time relays, it is
proportional to the magnitude of the incoming current.

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Digital relays.
With the application of microprocessors, over relays have been developed.
digital currents (numeric or microprocessed), which in addition to fulfilling the
protection functions perform other additional functions such as: measurement,
event logging, fault localization, and oscillograms. The above is carried out through the
sampling and manipulation of the electrical parameters, which are used in form
numerical to solve each of the algorithms that the microprocessor calculates for
fulfill the previously described tasks.

Digital overcurrent relay

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Basic Constitution of Protection Relays.

The microprocessed relays are basically made up of the following
way: analog input units (current), digital input units
(switch contacts, etc.), filters, power supply, microprocessor for
protection functions, microprocessor for measurement functions, RAM memory
for event logging, EEPROM memory to store settings, output units,
trigger and alarm contacts, communication ports, screen and keyboard, LEDs for
flag signaling and ignition pilot and finally the self-diagnosis unit
and monitoring.

2.2.- Conventional induction overcurrent relay.- Operating principle and

characteristics.
Operating Principle
They are based on the effect of electromagnetic induction, which is the phenomenon that originates.

the production of an electromotive force in a medium or body exposed to a

variable magnetic field, whether in a moving medium with respect to a field

static non-uniform magnetic, or the variation of the field lines that

they cross said surface by means of a turn.
It consists of a disk N that rotates around an axis P, on which it goes
unrolling a counterweight M as shown in the following figure:

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Inductive Overcurrent Relay

It covered a century of life due to its simple design, reliability, and high precision.
electromechanical. Of disk or cylinder type whose rotation speed ω is proportional
to the magnitude of the failure.

It allows for obtaining diverse reverse time characteristics such as distances or

races between the trigger contacts could be achieved.
The 'fixed' contact is adjustable within an arc of 340° in established and graduated positions.
from 1 to 10, allowing each position to generate a T-C curve with characteristics
own.
Therefore, each relay provides up to 10 or more separate curves in the
time, thus facilitating its application in protection systems.

Characteristics
Whatever the type of relay, whether induction or static, there are common terms.
which are defined below and are essential for understanding employment and
calibration of these elements.
•Tap: this device allows to vary the sensitivity of the relay enabling it to operate
at different current values.
•Minimum operating current (pick up): it is the minimum current that
change the relay contacts from open to closed.
Starting current: it is the value of current that is just necessary to overcome inertia.
of the moving parts.
Time scale (lever): in the induction relays it indicates the resting position of the
disc, therefore, determines its path until the closing of the
contacts, in general, both in induction relays and static ones, the lever
allows varying operation time for minimum current values of
operation.

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•Overshoot: it is the time that the disk can continue spinning, in the
induction relays, due to their inertia, after the fault has been de-energized by
another protection system, before closing its contacts.

It is recommended, to achieve a more effective use of an overcurrent relay

inverse time, choose a sensitivity such that it operates in the most inverse part of the
operating curve for the entire short circuit current range of your area
protection, that is, the minimum value of the current for which it must operate must
be equal to or at least 1.5 times the minimum operating current (pick up),
but not much more.

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ANSI designation
The number '50' comes from the ANSI standard codes, where it is identified.
as an overcurrent relay between phases, whose response is instantaneous to
high current magnitudes. Although its operating time depends on the
manufacturer, it is estimated that the actuation time is 0.05 seconds (3
cycles).
According to figure 1, the secondary current I" of the TC is the power supply of the coil.
main of the relay. A current magnitude "In" is set to the relay, which if
is surpassed by the TC feeding, this will energize an electromagnet,
thus activating a mobile contact that will open the circuit, thus protecting the equipment

that is connected to the relay.

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TYPES OF INDUCTION RELAYS

In the shaded pole relay, the main flux is divided into two flows.
outdated.

The drum or induction cup relays and the induction ring relay are
similar to induction motors, except that here the rotor's iron is stationary and
the drum, which is a hollow cylinder, is the one that rotates; the same operation occurs if the
the part that rotates is one or two rings.

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2.3.- Digital relays and multifunctional and programmable protection units.-

Features, specifications, and applications.

Digital relays were first proposed in 1969 as a
application of a digital computer to perform protection functions for all
substation equipment. The evolution of digital relays is due to the rapid advancement of
the technology of microprocessors and the emergence of novel algorithms
protection.
The objective of digital relays is to match or exceed the performance of electromechanical relays.

solid state and electromechanical relays. A digital relay converts analog signals
of tension and intensity in binary quantities through an analog converter-
digital.
Then, these amounts are processed numerically by the algorithms or
computer programs of the relay. The algorithms are responsible for fault detection and the
control of the trigger signals. Figure 3 shows a commercial digital relay.

Figure 3.- Digital Relay

Additionally to everything mentioned above, it should be noted that, having a

Microprocessor, the digital protections have the ability to self-diagnose. The
The self-diagnostic function is responsible for continuously monitoring the status of the relay.

(hardware and software) and when there is an internal fault in the digital relay, it goes offline

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service automatically, blocking its protection functions and sending a

warning signal.
When it is necessary to modify the protection schemes, a change in the
programming of the relay protection logic saves many connections that would be
necessary with electromechanical relays and solid-state relays, that is, they simplify the
necessary wiring for a protection system.
Digital relays have multifunctional capability, that is, the ability to house in
the same relay different protection functions (overcurrent protection,
under-voltage protection, distance protection, and others) depending on the
characteristics of the hardware and software of the relay.

The sources of information in substations are very varied, however, the

the ability to turn that data into valuable and useful information is complicated according to the

size of the installation, having the manufacturers of the protection and control equipment
to adapt to existing technologies (IEC 60870-5-103).
They have a digital communications module, either via copper Ethernet network or well
through fiber optic and Internet Protocol (IP) configurability, which allows them to
act and communicate with each other and with remote control centers.

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[Link]

2.4 overcurrent relay of phase-to-phase faults - star-star and delta connections -

delta. Characteristics and applications

OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Overcurrent relays are devices used to detect conditions
intolerable or undesirable within an assigned area and operate in conjunction with the
switches.

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These relays can be classified in different ways

ACCORDING TO THE SENSE OF CURRENT DETECTION

Non-directional:
Opera to the currents that flow on both sides of its location. It executes its
function regardless of the direction in which the current flows.
Directional:
Only operates for currents flowing in their adjustment direction. Executes its function.
checking the direction in which the current flows in its protection zone
correspond to the assigned. Directionality is achieved through an additional signal of
reference, which is usually the voltage.

Every relay must be properly connected with its instrument transformer.

according to its function. The typical three-phase combination of CTs - Relays is:
Y-Y
Δ-Δ
Y-Δ
D- Y
STAR-STAR THREE-PHASE CONNECTION

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DELTA - DELTA THREE-PHASE CONNECTION

These connections are intended for single-phase relays. The digital ones are three-phase.

The STAR-STAR connection is the most used due to the advantage of the 4th wire.
interconnection to the neutral.

The DELTA–DELTA connection is restricted to special cases.

2.5 ground fault overcurrent relays residual type connections, to the neutral and of
zero sequence.
In electrical systems, there is always the possibility of an occurrence.
interruption in the power supply due to overloads or short circuits either due to
operational errors, environmental conditions, lack of maintenance or discharges
atmospheric.
TYPES OF FAILURES
1.- Short circuit: It occurs when the conductors (line, neutral or ground) are
solidly connected to each other, presenting a zero impedance in that connection
thus obtaining the condition of maximum current.
2.- Ground Fault: This occurs when one of the phases of the system comes into contact
directly to ground or with any metal part that is grounded.
3.- Arc Fault: Occurs between two nearby conductors but does not enter into
direct contact.

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Why protect ourselves against a ground fault?

Ground faults can originate in different ways, but the most common are:
reduction of insulation, physical damage to the insulation of conductors or an amount
excessive transients that can damage the insulation.
These problems can occur due to:
Environmental

Mechanical efforts
Deterioration of insulation
When is Ground Fault Protection required?
1. When systems are solidly grounded.
2. That the system has a line-to-line voltage of between 260 and 600 Volts.
3. That the system has a disconnection device of 1000A or more.
4. That the loaded cargo is not Fire Pumps.

The 4 previous characteristics apply to NOM001 in Mexico and to NEC-2011,

however, there are some additional characteristics mentioned in the NEC-2011
The maximum adjustment of the ground fault protection shall be 1200 A and the time
maximum delay for currents of 3000 Amps or more shall be 1
second. (NEC 230.95 A)
2. The complete ground fault protection system and not just the unit of
individual shot, must be tested at the initial installation. (NEC 230.95 C)
NEUTRAL RELAYS

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With relays connected to the neutral of power transformers through

a current transformer provides a convenient and low-cost method
cost to obtain ground fault protection.
In grounded three-phase three-wire systems, the minimum ground fault current
it can adjust to the minimum available value, unless this causes a loss of the
necessary selectivity.
For the previous case, if a longer operation delay does not correct the
the problem can be used by adjusting higher to allow devices
"downstream" clean faults.
NOTE:
When there are no ground fault relays in located switches 'waters
below the minimum current of the ground fault protection of the source may
adjust as high as the phase protection of the largest feeder if the
selective operation is achieved.

REMAINING PROTECTION
Residual protection is commonly used in medium voltage systems. This
the system consists of the use of 3 interconnected current transformers
which send a proportional signal of the ground fault current to the relay or
protection device to act. This system is not often used in
low voltage equipment, however, low voltage systems with 3 are available
residual-connected current transformers.

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When one of the phases comes into contact with ground, the short circuit current
circulates through the ground and not through the fault line which produces an imbalance in
the circuit generating a residual current that is detected by the device of
protection.
When there are 3-phase 4-wire systems feeding loads
single-phase, a fourth current transformer must be added to
monitor the current consumed by these single-phase loads as well as the
zero-sequence harmonic currents produced by nonlinear loads
single-phase like fluorescent lighting. If such transformer were not installed
The protection device would interpret the imbalance between phases.
like a ground fault and would open the circuit.

Balanced Core Protection (Zero Sequence Sensor).

The balanced core method is based on the vector sum of flows.

In this method, only a current transformer is used which
monitor the three phases of the system
The current transformer has a lower amperage capacity now only
monitor a possible imbalance
When a ground fault occurs, the current flows through the conductor of
land and generates an imbalance in the output of the TC which causes the operation of the

protection device.

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2.6 Differential current relay.- Percentage characteristic, connections and

protection applications.
Differential Relay 87
Differential protection, ANSI function 87, consists of measuring the currents between
two points of the same circuit.
The operating principle of differential protection (87) is based on the law of
Kirchhoff's current, where the current entering a node is equal to the
current that leaves the node.
If there is a fault in the protected node, the incoming current will be different from the

outgoing current, hence the term differential.

In the system shown in figure 1, a network element of any kind is shown.
(a transformer, a bar, a feeder, etc.), at the ends of said
There are current transformers connected as shown.

Operation
The current signal from these transformers is sent to a protection relay, which calculates the

difference between the incoming and outgoing current, if that value is greater than one
certain tolerance is declared as a failure condition and the system is ordered to fire.
For the relay to make a correct comparison of the incoming current and
outgoing, I1 and I2, these must have the same magnitude and the same phase angle.
The area between the current transformers is referred to as the 'protection zone.'
The sum of the currents I1 + I2 is the differential current.

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This is the normal load condition, the phasor diagram is shown in figure 2
Under this state of the system, the sum of the currents I1+I2 equals 0 (phasor sum).
The condition I1+I2=0 so whatever comes in must go out under normal load and
without fail, as it will be the current of line IL.

The protection set consists of a pair of transformers with the same ratio.
feeding a single relay in parallel with the combination.
The separation between both TC's forms the so-called 'protection zone'.
differential which should be relatively short for better accuracy.

Percentage Characteristic
Since this relay receives two current magnitudes and compares them to each other,

it will show a characteristic curve of linear relationship between them on a

X-Y plane.
If there are no differences, Case 1 represents a straight line. If there are differences,
these can be tolerated and adjusted within a predetermined restricted area,

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Cases 2 and 3, expressing the latter as a % differential against the % of the adjustment.

desired restriction.
These restrictions allow for the absorption of temporary and fleeting contingencies.
protected equipment, such as transformers and large machines,
applying the corresponding calibrations.

Applications:
The following will show this protection in the supervision and care of the
stator de grandes generadores y motores, as well as those of
power transformers

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Differential protection of a bus or distribution board

2.7 Directional Current Relay

When the coordination of overcurrent protections becomes complicated
and sometimes impossible in transmission lines with power supply on both
extremes, overcurrent relays supervised by a unit can be used
directional. Directionality simplifies the problem of selectivity and safety.

Concept.- The directional relay is a protection, ANSI function 67, designed to observe
a predetermined sense of current flow (or power), applied in circuits of
dispatch and distribution of load, especially the rings and transmission networks and

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distribution, as well as generation plants. The backflow failure is

caused by the operation of switches, short circuits, a false maneuver or a
accident and is capable of affecting or damaging equipment and installations through feedback
in which the presence of potential returns at their exit is not expected.

Principle.- They are based on two magnitudes: a normal current signal and
another potential signal called 'polarization voltage' coming from a TP. The
directionality is obtained by recognizing the phase shift angle between
both magnitudes.
The operation of all the relays that compare the amplitudes is of current-
voltage, depend on the direction in which the power applied to its terminals (Sr) flows, according to

the expression
Sr = Vr * Ir * sin(φsm - φr)

Where:
Vr and Ir are the voltage and current respectively at the relay input.
Φr is the phase shift between Vr and Ir,
φsm is the angle that depends on the relay and has a constant value.
According to the operational value of the most common directional relays, it is described:
Sine type (φsm=0°)
Cosine type (φsm- =90°)
Combined type (0<φsm<90°).

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Feature.- This relay, unlike the timed overcurrent relay, uses

a polar graph for voltage and current phasors observed by each phase:
In that plane, the angle φr is positive for inductive impedances (current leads)
regarding the tension

Note: The above representation corresponds to a current digital relay. However

the trend to preserve the electromechanical concepts of disk relays prevails
induction that gave them origin. The diagram on the right shows the reference for the
previous technology.

Aplicaciones.- Las grandes máquinas y las instalaciones de potencia de generación,

Transmission and distribution of electricity are the areas where the needs are found.
of flow inversion prevention:

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2.8 Instrument transformers.- Accuracy, polarities, connections and

specifications.
Current and potential transformers, designated as TCS and TPs are
those responsible for capturing and sending to the measurement, control, and protection instruments

information about the behavior of currents and voltages that occur in the system
of high voltage power from the SEP's. Of the quality that contains this information
it will depend on the accuracy of that measurement and the reliability of the protective actions

and/or expected control.

His behavior is measured by his ability to reproduce the current or the
primary voltages in terms of secondary ones. These values have been standardized
in 5 Amps. and 120 Volts.

Saturation and Precision

All kinds of transformers, whether they are instrument or power transformers, are

based on iron cores and magnetic circuits whose characteristics are non-linear
tends to 'saturate' with magnetic flux under excessive handling conditions
currents. That is to say, as the primary current supply increases to
nucleus (for example a short circuit of the SEP) its conversion into magnetic flux not
it will correspond to that increase and consequently the induced current on the side

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secondary (signal) will also not correspond, losing the expected relationship between both
currents and therefore the accuracy of this signal.

From the quality of the ferromagnetic material (high silicon steel) of the core
it will depend on the saturation and the range of utilization that can be obtained before
become unusable. All qualities present a segment usable
somewhat linear that will fade with greater amplitude.

Precision Class
Class of precision: it is the maximum allowable error in percentage that the TC/TP can...

introduce in power measurement.

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The error also depends on the load of devices or instruments to be

fed, so the normalization of the precision employs this concept to the total of
impedance in ohms applied to the transformer is called burden, 'B' followed by the
ohm value.
IMPEDANCE
CLASS OF
FROM THE LOAD APPLICATION
ANSI PRECISION
EN Ω

B0.1 0.1 Calibration of laboratory instruments

That it is not out of range and does not give errors

B0.2 B0.3 0.2 Laboratory measurement (power, energy,

0.3 wattmeters and watt-hour meters

B0.5 B0.6 0.5 Nutrition to wattmeters by fracturing in

0.6 distribution circuits. billing

B1.2 1.2 All kinds of instruments on panels

industrial

B3.0 B5.0 3.0 Power supply to protection relays

5.0

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In conclusion, for protection circuits, the recommended class is Precision Class.

B3.0/5.0 for an increase no greater than 20 times the nominal currents. Therefore
All selection of TC's should consider that their maximum short-circuit current does not
it is more than 20 times its nominal capacity. INDEPENDENT EXCITATION DEVICE

Capabilities
TC's.- Its nominal capacity will be marked by the primary side, maintaining the 5 A.
secondary. The transformation relationship is:

RTC = Ip/Is

Typical transformation relationships of TC's

50:5 250:5 600:5 1500:5

100:5 300:5 750:5 2000:5

150:5 400:5 200 600

200:5 500:5 1250:5 5000:5

TP's. - Its nominal capacity will be indicated by the primary side, maintaining 120 V.
secondary. The transformation relationship is:

RTP = Vp/Vs

Typical transformation relationships of TP's

230:120 6.6k:120 34.5k:120 400k:120

460:120 7.2k:120 69k:120

2300:120 13.8k:120 115k:120

4160:120 22.5k:120 230k:120

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Example of TC Selection:
Selection of TC for a SEP that has a maximum load current of 230 A.
short circuit current calculated at 5,000 A.

a) Selection by nominal capacity. - For 230 A. normal, it is chosen from the table of
TC's immediate superior relationship, that is 250:5
b) Failure verification.- This option has a capacity of 20 times x 250 = 5,000
A. that is similar to the expected failure; therefore it may be acceptable, however
it remains at the maximum limit, therefore, it is advisable to modify the
selection a300:5;
RTC = 300/5 = 60
Polarity
The connection between TC's/TP's and their instruments must observe a direction of
the flow senses of their currents and tensions that allow them to obtain the measurement
Correct. The polarity markings on its primary and secondary terminals will facilitate this.
additive connection at the same point or subtractive. Inverted polarity

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Specifications

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Low voltage type donut transformers.

TC and TP of medium voltage (15KV)

TC and TP of high voltage (230KV)

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