Contents

CHAPTER 1: Signals and Systems

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Signals and Classification of Signals
1.3 Basic Continuous-Time Signals
1.4 Basic Discrete-Time Signals
1.5 Systems and Classification of Systems

Solved Problems
 Signals and Systems
1.1 Introduction
The concept and theory of signals and systems are needed in almost all electrical engineering fields and in many
other engineering and scientific disciplines as well. In this chapter we introduce the mathematical description
and representation of signals and systems and their classifications. We also define several important basic sig-
nals essential to our studies.

1.2 Signals and Classification of Signals

A signal is a function representing a physical quantity or variable, and typically it contains information about
the behavior or nature of the phenomenon. For instance, in an RC circuit the signal may represent the voltage
across the capacitor or the current flowing in the resistor. Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function
of an independent variable t. Usually t represents time. Thus, a signal is denoted by x(t).

A. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals:

A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if tis a continuous variable. If tis a discrete variable-that is, x(t) is
defined at discrete times-then x(t) is a discrete-time signal. Since a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete
times, a discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {xn} or x[n], where
n = integer. Illustrations of a continuous-time signal x(t) and of a discrete-time signal x[n] are shown in Fig. 1-1.

x(t) x[n]

0 - 5 - 4- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
(a) (b)

Fig. 1-1 Graphical representation of (a) continuous-time and (b} discrete-time signals.

A discrete-time signal x[n] may represent a phenomenon for which the independent variable is inherently
discrete. For instance, the daily closing stock market average is by its nature a signal that evolves at discrete
points in time (that is, at the close of each day). On the other hand a discrete-time signal x[n] may be obtained
by sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) such as

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

or in a shorter form as

x[O],x[l], ... ,x[n], ...

or

where we understand that

xn = x[n] = x(t)

and xn's are called samples and the time interval between them is called the sampling interval. When the sampling
intervals are equal (uniform sampling), then

xn = x[n] = x(nT8 )

where the constant T, is the sampling interval.

A discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined in two ways:

1. We can specify a rule for calculating the nth value of the sequence. For example,

n:=::O

n<O

or

2. We can also explicitly list the values of the sequence. For example, the sequence shown in
Fig. 1-l(b) can be written as

{xn} = { ... , 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, ... }

t
or {xn} = {1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2}
t
We use the arrow to denote the n = 0 term. We shall use the convention that if no arrow is indicated,
then the first term corresponds ton= 0 and all the values of the sequence are zero for n < 0.
The sum and product of two sequences are defined as follows:

{en}= {an}+ {bn} - en =an+ bn

{en}= {an }{bn} -en= an bn
a= constant

B. Analog and Digital Signals:

If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any value in the continuous interval (a, b), where a may be -oo and
b may be +oo, then the continuous-time signal x(t) is called an analog signal. If a discrete-time signal x[n] can
take on only a finite number of distinct values, then we call this signal a digital signal.

C. Real and Complex Signals:

A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real number, and a signal x(t) is a complex signal if its value is a com-
plex number. A general complex signal x(t) is a function of the form

(1.1)

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

where x 1(t) and xz(t) are real signals andj = \/="1.

Note that in Eq. ( 1.1) t represents either a continuous or a discrete variable.

D. Deterministic and Random Signals:

Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any given time. Thus, a
deterministic signal can be modeled by a known function of time t. Random signals are those signals that
take random values at any given time and must be characterized statistically. Random signals will be dis-
cussed in Chaps. 8 and 9.

E. Even and Odd Signals:

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if

x(-t) = x(t)
(1.2)
x[ -n] = x[n]

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd signal if

x(-t) = -x(t)
(1.3)
x[-n] = -x[n]

Examples of even and odd signals are shown in Fig. 1-2.

x(t) x[n]

0 - 4- 3- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n
(a) (b)

x(t) x[n]

- 3- 2- 1

-4 1 2 3 4 n

(c) (d)

Fig. 1-2 Examples of even signals (a and b) and odd signals (c and d).

Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two signals, one of which is even and one of which is
odd. That is,

x(t) = xe(t) + x 0 (t)

(1.4)
x[n] = xeln] + x 0 [n]

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1
Where xe(t) = - {x(t) + x(- t)} even part of x(t)
2 (1.5)
1
xeln] = -{x[n] + x[-n]} even part of x[n]
2
1
x 0 (t) = - {x(t)- x(- t)} odd part of x(t)
2
(1.6)
1
x 0 [n] = -{x[n]- x[- n]} odd part of x[n]
2

Note that the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an even signal and that the product of an
even signal and an odd signal is an odd signal (Prob. 1.7).

F. Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals:

A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic with period T if there is a positive nonzero value of T
for which

x(t + T) = x(t) all t (1.7)

An example of such a signal is given in Fig. 1-3(a). From Eq. (1.7) or Fig. 1-3(a) it follows that

x(t + mT) = x(t) (1.8)

for all t and any integer m. The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest positive value of T for which
Eq. (1.7) holds. Note that this definition does not work for a constant signal x(t) (known as a de signal). For
a constant signal x(t) the fundamental period is undefined since x(t) is periodic for any choice of T (and so there
is no smallest positive value). Any continuous-time signal which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic
(or aperiodic) signal.

x(t)

- 2T -T 0 T 2T
(a)

x[n]

- 2N -N 0 N 2N n
(b)

Fig. 1-3 Examples of periodic signals .

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Periodic discrete-time signals are defined analogously. A sequence (discrete-time signal) x[n] is periodic with
period N if there is a positive integer N for which

x[n + N] = x[n] all n (1.9)

An example of such a sequence is given in Fig. 1-3(b). From Eq. (1.9) and Fig. 1-3(b) it follows that

x[n + mN] = x[n] (1.10)

for all n and any integer m. The fundamental periodN0 of x[n] is the smallest positive integer Nforwhich Eq. (1.9)
holds. Any sequence which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) sequence.
Note that a sequence obtained by uniform sampling of a periodic continuous-time signal may not be
periodic (Probs. 1.12 and 1.13). Note also that the sum of two continuous-time periodic signals may not be
periodic but that the sum of two periodic sequences is always periodic (Probs. 1.14 and 1.15).

G. Energy and Power Signals:

Consider v(t) to be the voltage across a resistor R producing a current i(t). The instantaneous power p(t) per ohm
is defined as

( ) =v(t)i(t)
pt ---=z t
.2 ( )
(1.11)
R
Total energy E and average power P on a per-ohm basis are

E = J~0/(t) dt joules (1.12)

. -1 JT/2 i 2 (t) dt
P = lim watts (1.13)
T-->oo T -T/2

For an arbitrary continuous-time signal x(t), the normalized energy content E of x(t) is defined as

E= f ~J x(t) 2
1 dt (1.14)

The normalized average power P of x(t) is defined as

.
P= hm -1 JT/2 lx(t)I 2 dt (1.15)
T-->oo T -T/2

Similarly, for a discrete-time signal x[n], the normalized energy content E of x[n] is defined as
00

E= :L lx[n]l 2 (1.16)
n=-oo

The normalized average power P of x[n] is defined as

N
P= lim - 1 -
N-->oo 2N + 1
:L
lx[n11 2 (1.17)
n=-N
Based on definitions (1.14) to (1.17), the following classes of signals are defined:

1. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be an energy signal (or sequence) ifand only ifO< E < oo, and so P = 0.
2. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be a power signal (or sequence) if and only if O < P < oo, thus implying
that E = oo.

3. Signals that satisfy neither property are referred to as neither energy signals nor power signals.

Note that a periodic signal is a power signal if its energy content per period is finite, and then the average
power of this signal need only be calculated over a period (Prob. 1.18).

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1.3 Basic Continuous-Time Signals

A. The Unit Step Function:
The unit step function u(t), also known as the Heaviside unit function, is defined as

{~
t> 0
u(t) = (1.18)
t<O
which is shown in Fig. 1-4(a). Note that it is discontinuous at t = 0 and that the value at t = 0 is undefined.
Similarly, the shifted unit step function u(t - t0 ) is defined as
1 t > t0
u(t-t0 )= { 0 (1.19)
t < t0
which is shown in Fig. 1-4(b)

u(t) u(t - t 0 )

0 O t0
(a) (b)

Fig. 1-4 (a) Unit step function; (b) shifted unit step function .

B. The Unit Impulse Function:

The unit impulse function o(t), also known as the Dirac delta function, plays a central role in system analysis.
Traditionally, o(t) is often defined as the limit of a suitably chosen conventional function having unity area over
an infinitesimal time interval as shown in Fig. 1-5 and possesses the following properties:

O t*O
o(t)= { oo t=O

f ~, o(t ) dt = 1

1
E

E-+Q

I I

Fig. 1-5

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

But an ordinary function which is everywhere 0 except at a single point must have the integral 0 (in the Riemann
integral sense). Thus, o(t) cannot be an ordinary function and mathematically it is defined by

J: <f>(t)o(t) dt
00
= </J(O) (1.20)

where <f>(t) is any regular function continuous at t = 0.

An alternative definition of o(t) is given by

I: <t>(t)o(t) dt = l
</>(0)
o
undefined
a < O< b
a
a
< b < 0 or 0 < a < b
=O or b =O
(1.21)

Note that Eq. (1.20) or (1.21) is a symbolic expression and should not be considered an ordinary Riemann
integral. In this sense, o(t) is often called a generalized function and </>(t) is known as a testing function.
A different class of testing functions will define a different generalized function (Prob. 1.24). Similarly, the
delayed delta function o(t - to) is defined by

(1.22)

where </>(t) is any regular function continuous at t = to- For convenience, o(t) and o(t - t0 ) are depicted graphically
as shown in Fig. 1-6.

8(t) 8(t - t0 )

0 O t0
(a) (b)

Fig. 1-6 (a) Unit impulse function ; (b) shifted unit impulse function .

Some additional properties of o(t) are

1
o(at) = ~o(t) (1.23)

o(- t) = o(t) (1.24)

x(t)o(t) = x(O)o(t) (1.25)

if x(t) is continuous at t = 0.

(1.26)

if x(t) is continuous at t = t0 .
Using Eqs. (1.22) and (1.24), any continuous-time signal x(t) can be expressed as

(1.27)

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

Generallzed Derivatives:
If g(t) is a generalized function, its nth generalized derivative g<n>(t) = dng(t)ldtn is defined by the following relation:

(l.28)

where <f>(t) is a testing function which can be differentiated an arbitrary number of times and vanishes outside
some fixed interval and <J><n>(t) is the nth derivative of <f>(t). Thus, by Eqs. (1.28) and (1.20) the derivative of '5(t)
can be defined as

f~00 </>(t)'5'(t) dt = - </>'(O) (l.29)

where <f>(t) is a testing function which is continuous at t = 0 and vanishes outside some fixed interval and
<f>'(O) = d<f>(t)ldtl r~o· Using Eq. (1.28), the derivative of u(t) can be shown to be '5(t) (Prob. 1.28); that is,

ui:(t ) -u
_ '(t ) -
_ du(t)
-- (l.30)
dt

Then the unit step function u(t) can be expressed as

(l.31)

Note that the unit step function u(t) is discontinuous at t = O; therefore, the derivative of u(t) as shown in
Eq. (1.30) is not the derivative of a function in the ordinary sense and should be considered a generalized deriv-
ative in the sense of a generalized function. From Eq. ( 1.31) we see that u (t) is undefined at t = 0 and

{~
t>O
u(t) =
t<O
by Eq. (1.21) with <f>(t) = 1. This result is consistent with the definition (1.18) of u(t).
Note that the properties (or identities) expressed by Eqs. (1.23) to (1.26) and Eq. (1.30) can not be verified
by using the conventional approach of '5(t) as shown in Fig. 1-5.

C. Complex Exponential Signals:

The Complex exponential signal
x(t) = ejroot (l.32)

is an important example of a complex signal. Using Euler's formula, this signal can be defined as

x(t) = ejroot =cos w 0 t + j sin w0 t (l.33)

Thus, x(t) is a complex signal whose real part is cos Wat and imaginary part is sin Wat. An important property of
the complex exponential signalx(t) in Eq. (1.32) is that it is periodic. The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is given
by (Prob. 1.9)
2:rr
To=- (l.34)
wo
Note that x(t) is periodic for any value of%·

General Complex Exponentlal Slgnals:

Lets = a+ jw be a complex number. We define x(t) as
x(t) = e•t = e<a+jw)t = eat(cos wt+ j sin wt) (1.35)

Then signal x(t) in Eq. (1.35) is known as a general complex exponential signal whose real part eat cos wt and imag-
inary part eat sin wt are exponentially increasing (a> 0) or decreasing (a< 0) sinusoidal signals (Fig. 1-7).

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

x(t) ,'

(a)

x(t)

,'
(b)

Fig. 1-7 (a) Exponentially increasing sinusoidal signal; (b) exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal.

Real Exponentlal Slgnals:

Note that ifs = a(a real number), then Eq. (1.35) reduces to a real exponential signal
x(t) = eat (1.36)

As illustrated in Fig. 1-8, if a> 0, then x(t) is a growing exponential; and if a< 0, then x(t) is a decaying
exponential.

D. Sinusoidal Signals:
A continuous-time sinusoidal signal can be expressed as

x(t) =A cos(«>ot + 8) (1.37)

where A is the amplitude (real),% is the radian frequency in radians per second, and(} is the phase angle in
radians. The sinusoidal signal x(t) is shown in Fig. 1-9, and it is periodic with fundamental period
2n
To=- (1.38)
Wo
The reciprocal of the fundamental period T0 is called the fundamental frequency f 0 :
1
fo = - hertz (Hz) (1.39)
To

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1-8 Continuous-time real exponential signals . (a) a> O; (b) a< 0.

x(t)

Fig. 1-9 Continuous-time sinusoidal signal.

From Eqs. (1.38) and (1.39) we have

% = 21tf0 (1.40)

which is called the fundamental angular frequency. Using Euler's formula, the sinusoidal signal in Eq. (1.37)
can be expressed as
A cos( uv + 8) = A Re{ eJ<w.i +el}
1 (1.41)

where "Re" denotes "real part of." We also use the notation "Im" to denote "imaginary part of." Then

A lm{ej<w 01 + 8 >} =A sin(u>of+8) (1.42)

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1.4 Basic Discrete-Time Signals

A. The Unit Step Sequence:
The unit step sequence u[n] is defined as

{~
n2::0
u[n] = (1.43)
n<O

which is shown in Fig. 1-lO(a). Note that the value of u[n] at n = 0 is defined [unlike the continuous-time step
function u(t) at t = O] and equals unity. Similarly, the shifted unit step sequence u[n - k] is defined as

u[n-k]={~
n2::k
(1.44)
n<k

which is shown in Fig. 1-lO(b).

u[n] u[n - k]

-2- 1 0 1 2 3 n - 2- 1 0 1 k n

(a) (b)

Fig. 1-10 (a) Unit step sequence; (b) shifted unit step sequence .

B. The Unit Impulse Sequence:

The unit impulse (or unit sample) sequence o[n] is defined as

o[n] = {~ (1.45)

which is shown in Fig. 1-ll(a). Similarly, the shifted unit impulse (or sample) sequence o[n - k] is defined as

o[n-k]={~
n=k
( 1.46)
n=l=k

which is shown in Fig. 1-ll(b).

8[n] 8[n - k]

-2-1 0 1 2 3 n -2-1 0 1 k n

(a) (b)

Fig. 1-11 (a) Unit impulse (sample) sequence ; (b) shifted unit impulse sequence .

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

Unlike the continuous-time unit impulse function b(t), b[n] is defined without mathematical complication
or difficulty. From definitions (1.45) and (1.46) it is readily seen that

x[n] b[n] = x[O] b[n] (l.47)

x[n] b[n - k] = x[k] b[n - k] (l.48)

which are the discrete-time counterparts ofEqs. (l.25) and (l.26), respectively. From definitions (l.43) to (l.46),
b[n] and u[n] are related by

b[n] = u[n] - u[n - 1] (l.49)

n oo
u[n] = :L i5[k] = :L b[n - k] (l.50)
k=-oo k=O

which are the discrete-time counterparts ofEqs. (l.30) and (l.31), respectively.
Using definition (1.46), any sequence x[n] can be expressed as
00

x[n] = :L x[k]b[n - k] (l.51)

k=-00

which corresponds to Eq. (l.27) in the continuous-time signal case.

C. Complex Exponential Sequences:

The complex exponential sequence is of the form

(l.52)

Again, using Euler's formula, x[n] can be expressed as

(l.53)

Thus, x[n] is a complex sequence whose real part is cos Q 0 n and imaginary part is sin Q 0 n.

Periodicity or e/C,n:
In order for eja,n to be periodic with period N (> 0), Q 0 must satisfy the following condition (Prob. 1.11):

Qo =m m = positive integer (l.54)

2n N
Thus, the sequence ejrJ,n is not periodic for any value of Q 0 . It is periodic only if Q 0 /2Jr is a rational number.
Note that this property is quite different from the property that the continuous-time signal ejroot is periodic
*
for any value of%· Thus, if Q 0 satisfies the periodicity condition in Eq. (1.54), Q 0 0, and N and m have no
factors in common, then the fundamental period of the sequence x[n] in Eq. (1.52) is N0 given by

N0 =m(~:) (l.55)

Another very important distinction between the discrete-time and continuous-time complex exponentials is
that the signals ejroot are all distinct for distinct values of% but that this is not the case for the signals eja,n.
Consider the complex exponential sequence with frequency (Q 0 + 2nk), where k is an integer:

(1.56)

since ej 2 ntn = 1. From Eq. (1.56) we see that the complex exponential sequence at frequency Q 0 is the same as
that at frequencies (Q 0 ± 2n), (Q0 ± 4n), and so on. Therefore, in dealing with discrete-time exponentials, we

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

need only consider an interval of length 2Jrin which to choose Q 0 . Usually, we will use the interval 0 :5 Q 0 < 2Jr
or the interval - Jr :5 Q 0 < Jr.

General Complex Exponentlal Sequences:

The most general complex exponential sequence is often defined as

x[n] =can (1.57)

where C and a. are, in general, complex numbers. Note that Eq. (1.52) is the special case of Eq. (1.57) with C = 1
and a= ej 0 0.

Real Exponentlal Sequences:

If C and a in Eq. (1.57) are both real, then x[n] is a real exponential sequence. Four distinct cases can be identified:
a > 1, 0 < a < 1, - 1 < a < 0, and a < - 1. These four real exponential sequences are shown in Fig. 1-12. Note
that if a= 1, x[n] is a constant sequence, whereas if a= -1, x[n] alternates in value between + C and -C.

n
(a)

n
(b)

(c)

(d )

Fig. 1-12 Real exponential sequences . (a) a > 1 ; (b) 1 > a > O; (c) 0 > a > - 1 ; (d) a < - 1.

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

D. Sinusoidal Sequences:
A sinusoidal sequence can be expressed as

x[n] =A cos(Q0 n + fJ) (1.58)

If n is dimensionless, then both Q 0 and fJ have units of radians. Two examples of sinusoidal sequences are shown
in Fig. 1-13. As before, the sinusoidal sequence in Eq. ( 1.58) can be expressed as

(1.59)

As we observed in the case of the complex exponential sequence in Eq. (1.52), the same observations
[Eqs. (1.54) and (1.56)] also hold for sinusoidal sequences. For instance, the sequence in Fig. 1-13(a) is periodic
with fundamental period 12, but the sequence in Fig. 1-13(b) is not periodic.

x[n] = cos 6n

0 I 0
0 II II 0 0 0

It I~ u 11 II

- 12 -9
-- -6
--
-3 0
-3 6
-9 12
-- n

1t 0 0 0

u It 0 u
II 11

(a)

x[n] = cos{%)

-9 -6 6 9

- 12 0 3 12 n

(b)

Fig. 1-13 Sinusoidal sequences. (a) x[n] = cos(.irn/6) ; (b) x[n] = cos(n/2) .

1.5 Systems and Classification of Systems

A. System Representation:
A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that relates the input (or excitation) signal to the output
(or response) signal.
Let x and y be the input and output signals, respectively, of a system. Then the system is viewed as a trans-
formation (or mapping) of x into y. This transformation is represented by the mathematical notation

y = Tx (1.60)

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CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

where Tis the operator representing some well-defined rule by which xis transformed into y. Relationship ( 1.60)
is depicted as shown in Fig. 1-14(a). Multiple input and/or output signals are possible, as shown in Fig. 1-14(b).
We will restrict our attention for the most part in this text to the single-input, single-output case.

:
X1 Y1

~1
x y
System
T • xn
:1 System

Ym

(a) (b)

Fig. 1-14 System with single or multiple input and output signals.

B. Deterministic and Stochastic Systems:

If the input and output signals x and y are deterministic signals, then the system is called a deterministic system.
If the input and output signals x and y are random signals, then the system is called a stochastic system.

C. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems:

If the input and output signals x and y are continuous-time signals, then the system is called a continuous-time
system [Fig. 1-15(a)]. If the input and output signals are discrete-time signals or sequences, then the system is
called a discrete-time system [Fig. 1-15(b)].

_x_(_t)--1•.il S~ y(t)
x[n] ·I. .-S-ys-;e_m_:_Y_[n_J_••

(a) (b)

Fig. 1-15 (a) Continuous-time system; (b) discrete-time system.

Note that in a continuous-time system the input x(t) and output y(t) are often expressed by a differential equation
(see Prob. 1.32) and in a discrete-time system the input x[n] and output y[n] are often expressed by a difference
equation (see Prob. 1.37).

D. Systems with Memory and without Memory

A system is said to be memoryless if the output at any time depends on only the input at that same time.
Otherwise, the system is said to have [Link] example of a memoryless system is a resistor R with the input
x(t) taken as the current and the voltage taken as the output y(t). The input-output relationship (Ohm's law) of
a resistor is

y(t) = Rx(t) (l.61)

An example of a system with memory is a capacitor C with the current as the input x(t) and the voltage as the
output y(t); then

1 ft x(r)dr
y(t)=- (1.62)
c -oo

A second example of a system with memory is a discrete-time system whose input and output sequences are
related by
n
y[n] = ~ x[k] (1.63)
k=-00

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 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

E. Causal and Noncausal Systems:

A system is called causal if its output at the present time depends on only the present and/or past values of the
input. Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible to obtain an output before an input is applied to the system.
A system is called noncausal (or anticipative) if its output at the present time depends on future values of the
input. Example of noncausal systems are

y(t) = x(t + 1) (l.64)

y[n] = x[-n] (l.65)

Note that all memoryless systems are causal, but not vice versa.

F. Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems:

If the operator Tin Eq. (1.60) satisfies the following two conditions, then Tis called a linear operator and the
system represented by a linear operator T is called a linear system:

1. Additivity:
Given that Tx 1 = y 1 and Tx2 = y2 , then

(l.66)

for any signals x 1 and x2 •

2. Homogeneity (or Sea/Ing):

T{ax} = ay (l.67)

for any signals x and any scalar a.

Any system that does not satisfy Eq. (1.66) and/or Eq. (1.67) is classified as a nonlinear system. Eqs. (1.66)
and (1.67) can be combined into a single condition as

(l.68)

where a 1 and a 2 are arbitrary scalars. Eq. (1.68) is known as the superposition property. Examples of linear
systems are the resistor [Eq. (1.61)] and the capacitor [Eq. (1.62)]. Examples of nonlinear systems are

y = x2 (l.69)

y = cosx (l.70)

Note that a consequence of the homogeneity (or scaling) property [Eq. (1.67)] of linear systems is that a zero
input yields a zero output. This follows readily by setting a = 0 in Eq. ( 1.67). This is another important prop-
erty of linear systems.

G. Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems:

A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or advance) in the input signal causes the same time shift
in the output signal. Thus, for a continuous-time system, the system is time-invariant if

T{x(t - i;)} = y(t - i;) (1.71)

for any real value of'!:'. For a discrete-time system, the system is time-invariant (or shift-invariant) if

T{x[n - k]} = y[n - k] (1.72)

for any integer k. A system which does not satisfy Eq. (1.71) (continuous-time system) or Eq. (1.72) (discrete-time
system) is called a time-varying system. To check a system for time-invariance, we can compare the shifted
output with the output produced by the shifted input (Probs. 1.33 to 1.39).

Page 16 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

H. Linear Time-Invariant Systems:

If the system is linear and also time-invariant, then it is called a linear time-invariant (LTI) system.

I. Stable Systems:
A system is bounded-input! bounded-output (BIBO) stable if for any bounded input x defined by

(1.73)

the corresponding output y is also bounded defined by

(1.74)

where k1 and k 2 are finite real [Link] unstable system is one in which not all bounded inputs lead to bounded
output. For example, consider the system where outputy[n] is given by y[n] = (n + l)u[n], and inputx[n] = u[n]
is the unit step sequence. In this case the input u[n] = 1, but the output y[n] increases without bound as n increases.

J. Feedback Systems:
A special class of systems of great importance consists of systems having feedback. In a feedback system, the
output signal is fed back and added to the input to the system as shown in Fig. 1-16.

y(t)
System

Fig. 1-16 Feedback system.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Slgnals and Classltlcatlon of Slgnals

1.1. A continuous-time signal x( t) is shown in Fig. 1-17. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x(t- 2); (b) x(2t); (c) x(t/2); (d) x(-t)

x(t)

-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1-17

(a) x(t - 2) is sketched in Fig . l-18(a).

(b) x(2t) is sketched in Fig. l-18(b).

(c) x(t/2) is sketched in Fig. l-18(c).

(d) x( - t)issketchedinFig. l-18(d).

Page 17 of 30
 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

x(t - 2) x(2t)

3 3

- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3

(a) (b)

x(t/2) x( - t)

3 3

- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - 5 - 4- 3- 2 - 1 0 1 2

(c) (d)

Fig. 1-18

1.2. A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Fig. 1-19. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x[n - 2]; (b) x[2n]; (c) x[-n]; (d) x[-n + 2]

x[n]

- 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 n
Fig. 1-19

(a) x[n - 2] is sketched in Fig . 1-20(a).

(b) x[2n] is sketched in Fig. 1-20(b).
(c) x[ - n] is sketched in Fig. 1-20(c).
(d) x[ - n + 2] is sketched in Fig . 1-20(d).

x[n-2] x[2n]

3 3

01234567 n -1 0 1 2 3 n
(a) (b)

Page 18 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

x[- n] x[- n + 2]

3 3

- 5 - 4 - 3- 2 - 1 0 1 n -3- 2 - 1 0 1 2 n
(c) (d)

Fig. 1-20

1.3. Given the continuous-time signal specified by

x(t) = {1-1 t I -l:5t:5l

0 otherwise

determine the resultant discrete-time sequence obtained by uniform sampling of x(t) with a sampling
interval of (a) 0.25 s, (b) 0.5 s, and (c) 1.0 s.

It is easier to take the graphical approach for this problem. The signalx(t) is plotted in Fig . 1-21(a). Figs. 1-2l(b) to (d)
give plots of the resultant sampled sequences obtained for the three specified sampling intervals.

(a) T, = 0.25 s. From Fig. 1-2l(b) we obtain

x[n] = { .. ., 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0, .. .}

t
(b) T, = 0 .5 s. From Fig . 1-21(c) we obtain

x[n] = { . . ., 0, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 0, ... }

t
(c) T, = 1 s. From Fig . 1-2l(d) we obtain

x[n] = { .. ., 0, 1, 0, ... } = c5[n]

t

x(t) x[n] = x(n/4)

- 1 0 - 4- 3- 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n
(a) (b)

x [n] = x(n/2) x[n] = x(n)

-2 -1 0 2 n - 1 0 n
(c) (d)

Fig. 1-21

Page 19 of 30
 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1.4. Using the discrete-time signals x 1[n] and x 2 [n] shown in Fig. 1-22, represent each of the following
signals by a graph and by a sequence of numbers.
(a) y 1[n] = x 1[n] + x 2 [n]; (b) y2 [n] = 2x 1[n]; (c) y 3 [n] = x 1[n]x 2 [n]

x 1 [n]

3 3

-2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n -3 n

Fig. 1-22

(a) y 1[n] is sketched in Fig. 1-23(a). From Fig. 1-23(a) we obtain

y 1[n] = { .. . , 0, - 2, - 2, 3, 4, 3, - 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, .. .}
t
(b) y 2[n] is sketched in Fig . 1-23(b). From Fig. 1-23(b) we obtain

y2 [n] = { .. . , 0, 2, 4, 6, 0, 0, 4, 4, 0, .. .}
t
(c) y 3[n] is sketched in Fig . 1-23(c) . From Fig . 1-23(c) we obtain

y 3 [n] = { . . ., 0, 2, 4, 0, ... }
t

y 1 [n] = x 1 [n] + x 2 [n]

6

4 4

2 2
- 2- 1 3
1 2 4 5 6 7 n -2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
-2

(a) (b)

- 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
(c)

Fig. 1-23

Page 20 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1.5. Sketch and label the even and odd components of the signals shown in Fig. 1-24.

Using Eqs . (1.5) and (1.6), the even and odd components of the signals shown in Fig . 1-24 are sketched in Fig. 1-25.

x(t) x(t)

4 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 0

(a) (b)

x[n] x [n]

4 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

(c) (d)

Fig. 1-24

xe(t) x 0 (t)
4 4

-5 0 5

(a)

4 4

(b)

Page 21 of 30
 CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

4 4

2 2

- 5 - 4- 3 - 2- 1
- 5 - 4- 3 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n 2 3 4 5 n
-2

(c)

x0 [n]
4 4

- 4- 3 - 2- 1

- 4- 3 - 2- 1 0 1 2 3 4 n 2 3 4 n
-2

(d)

Fig. 1-25

1.6. Find the even and odd components of x(t) = ei1•

Let x,(t) and x0 (t) be the even and odd components of ei', respectively.

ei' = x,(t) + x.(t)

From Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) and using Euler's formula, we obtain

1 . .
x (t) = -(e11 +e- Jl) = cost
e 2
x (t) = .!..(e11 - e- 11 ) = 1·sint
0 2

1.7. Show that the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an even signal and that the product of
an even and an odd signal is an odd signal.

Let x(t) = x 1(t)xz(t). If x 1(t) and xz(t) are both even, then

and x(t) is even. If x 1(t) and xz(t) are both odd, then

and x(t) is even. If x 1(t) is even and xz(t) is odd, then

and x(t) is odd. Note that in the above proof, variable t represents either a continuous or a discrete variable.

Page 22 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

In other words, the sum of two periodic signals is periodic only if the ratio of their respective periods can be
expressed as a rational number. Then the fundamental period is the least common multiple of T1 and T2 , and it is
given by Eq. (1.84) if the integers m and k are relative prime. If the ratio T/T2 is an irrational number, then the
signals x 1(t) and x 2(t) do not have a common period and x(t) cannot be periodic.

1.15. Let x 1[n] and x 2 [n] be periodic sequences with fundamental periods N 1 and N2 , respectively. Under what
conditions is the sum x[n] = x 1[n] + x 2 [n] periodic, and what is the fundamental period of x[n] if it is
periodic?

Since x 1[n] and x 2 [n] are periodic with fundamental periods N 1 and N 2, respectively, we have

x 1[n] = x 1[n + N 1] = x 1[n + mN1] m = positive integer

x2 [n] = x2 [n + N 2] = x 2 [n + kN2] k = positive integer

Thus,

In order for x[n] to be periodic with period N, one needs

Thus, we must have

(l.86)

Since we can always find integers m and k to satisfy Eq. ( 1.86), it follows that the sum of two periodic sequences is
also periodic and its fundamental period is the least common multiple of N 1 and N2 •

1.16. Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If a signal is periodic, determine its
fundamental period.

(a) x(t) = cos(t + ~) (b) x ( t ) =sm-t

. 2Jl
3
()
(c) x t = cos - t
Jl .Jl
+ sm - t (d) x(t) = cos t + sin .J2 t
3 4
(e) x(t) = sin 2 t (f) x(t) = ej[(,./2)1-11

1
(g) x[n] = ej(Hl4)n (h) x[n] = cos-n
4
(i) []
x n = cos-n Jl
+ [Link]
(j) x[n] = cos 2 !!_n
3 4 8

(a) X(t) = cos(t +~)=cos(OJof + ~ )--+ Wo = 1

x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = 2n I w 0 = 2n.
. 2n 2n
(b) x(t)=sm-t--+w0 =-
3 3
x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0 = 2n I OJo = 3.

(c) x(t) = cos~t + sin~t = x 1 (t) + x 2 (t)

3 4

where x 1(t) = cos(n/3)t = cos w/ is periodic with T1 = 2n/w 1 = 6 and xp) = sin(n/4)t = sin Wl is periodic
with T2 = 2n/w2 = 8. Since T1 /T2 = ~ = %is a rational number, x(t) is periodic with fundamental period
T0 = 4T1 = 3T2 = 24.

Page 23 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

(c) E = Jim
T-oo
J T/2
- T/2
2
lx(t)I dt = Jim
T-oo
JT/2 2
0
(T /2) 3
t dt = Jim - - = oo
T- oo 3

.
P = hm -
1 JT/2 2 .
lx(t)I dt = hm -
1 JT/2 t 2 . 1 (T /2) 3
dt = hm - - - = oo
T- oo T - T/2 T-oo T 0 T-oo T 3

Thus, x(t) is neither an energy signal nor a power signal.

(d) By definition (1.16) and using Eq. (1.91), we obtain

_L 0.25 n = -1- = -<oo

4
00 00
2
E= _L lx[nJI =
n =- oo n =O 1 - 0.25 3

Thus, x[n] is an energy signal.

(e) By definition (1.17)
N
P = Jim _1_ ~ lx[nll2
N-oo 2N + 1 L.,
n =- N
N
= Jim _ l _ ~ 12 = Jim - 1-(N + 1) = .!_< oo
N - oo 2N + 1 L., N -oo 2N + 1 2
n =O

Thus, x[n] is a power signal.

(f) Since lx[n] I = I2ei 3n I = 2 IeJ 3n I = 2,
N N
P = Jim _1_ ~ lx[nJl2 = Jim _1_ ~ 22
N -oo 2N + 1 L., N - oo 2N + 1 L.,
n =- N n =- N

= Jim _ l _ 4(2N + 1) = 4 < oo

N-oo 2N +1

Thus, x[n] is a power signal.

Basic Slgnals

1.21. Show that

u(-t)={~
t>O
(1.97)
t<O

Let -r = - t. Then by definition ( 1.18)

u(- t) = u(-r) = {~ -r>O

-r<O

Since T > 0 and T < 0 imply, respectively, that t < 0 and t > 0, we obtain

u(- t) = {~
t>O
t<O
which is shown in Fig . 1-26.

u(-t)

Fig. 1-26

Page 24 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

Now, using Eq. (1.20) for </J(O), we obtain

J oo _ 00
1
</J(t)()(at) dt = ~</J(O) = ~
1 Joo_
00 </J(t)()(t) dt

= J oo </J(t)~(j(t)
-00
1
dt

for any </J(t). Then, by the equivalence property (1.99), we obtain

1
()(at)= ~(j(t)

(b) Setting a= -1 in the above equation, we obtain

which shows that ()(t) is an even function.

1.26. (a) Verify Eq. (1.26):

if x(t) is continuous at t = t0 .
(b) Verify Eq. (l.25):

x(t) b(t) = x(O) b(t)

if x(t) is continuous at t = 0.

(a) If x(t) is continuous at t = t0 , then by definition (1.22) we have

J~00 </J(t)[x(t)(j(t - t0 )] dt = J~)</J(t)x(t)]()(t - t0 ) dt = </J(t0 )x(t0 )

= x(to) J~00 </J(t)()(t- t0 ) dt

= J~00 </J(t)[x(to)(j(t-to)l dt

for all </J(t) which are continuous at t = t 0 • Hence, by the equivalence property (l.99) we conclude that

(b) Setting t0 = 0 in the above expression, we obtain

x(t)()(t) = x(O)()(t)

1.27. Show that

(a) tb(t) = 0
(b) sin tb(t) = 0
(c) cos tb(t - ;r) = -b(t - ;r)

Using Eqs. (1.25) and (1.26), we obtain

(a) t()(t) = (0) ()(t) = 0

(b) sin t()(t) = (sin 0) ()(t) = (0) ()(t) = 0

(c) cos t()(t - :n:) = (cos :n:) ()(t - :n:) = (- l)(j(t - :n:) = -(j(t - :n:)

Page 25 of 30
41•* CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

1.28. Verify Eq. ( 1.30):

du(t)
<5(t) = u'(t) = - -
dt

From Eq. (1.28) we have

J~00 i/J(t)u'(t) dt = - J~00 ijJ'(t)u(t) dt (l.100)

where l/J(t) is a testing function which is continuous at t = 0 and vanishes outside some fixed interval. Thus, ijJ'(t)
exists and is integrable over 0 < t < oo and ijJ(oo) = 0. Then using Eq. (l.98) or definition (l.18), we have

J~00 i/J(t)u'(t) dt = - J: i/J'(t) dt = - l/J(t)I~ = - [ijJ(oo)- l/J(O)]

= l/J(O) = J~00 i/J(t)6(t) dt

Since l/J(t) is arbitrary and by equivalence property (1.99), we conclude that

6(t) = u'(t) = du(t)

dt

1.29. Show that the following properties hold for the derivative of <5(t):

(a) J: </J(t)i5'(t) dt
00
= - </J'(O) where </J'(O) = d</J(t)
dt
I
t=O
(l.101)

(b) ti5'(t) = -<5 (t) (1.102)

(a) Using Eqs. (1.28) and (1.20), we have

J~00 i/J(t)6'(t) dt = - J~00 ijJ'(t)6(t) dt = - l/J'(O)

(b) Using Eqs. (1.101) and (1.20), we have

J oo i/J(t) [t()'(t)] dt Joo_)ti/J(t)]()'(t) dt

_ 00 = = -
d
dt [ti/J(t)] lr=O

= - [i/J(t) + tl/J'(t)Jl1=0 = - l/J(O)

= - J~oo i/J(t)6(t) dt = J:oo l/J(t)[-6(t)] dt

Thus, by the equivalence property (1.99) we conclude that

t6'(t) = -(j(t)

1.30. Evaluate the following integrals:

(a) f 1(3t
2 +1)<5(t)dt

(b) J, (3t
2 2 + 1)<5(t) dt

(c) J:oo (t 2 +cos m)i5(t -1) dt

(d) J: e 00
-t <5(2t - 2) dt

(e) J: e00
-t <5'(t) dt

Page 26 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

(a) By Eq. (l.21), with a = -1 and b = 1, we have

f I (3t 2 + l)c5(t) dt = (3t 2 + l)lt=O = 1

(b) By Eq. (1.21), with a = 1 and b = 2, we have

f,2 (3t 2 + l)c5(t) dt = 0

(c) By Eq. (l.22)

I~"' (t 2 +cos nt)c5(t - 1) dt = (t 2 +cos :rrt) It=!

=l+cos:rr=l-1=0

(d) Using Eqs. (1.22) and (1.23), we have

J~00 e-t c5(2t - 2) dt = J~00 e- 1c5[2(t - l)] dt

= J"' e- __!_c5(t
-oo
1
121
-1) dt = .!.e-
2
11
t=I 2e

(e) By Eq. (l.29)

I "' e- c5'(t)dt=-.!!._(e-
-oo
1
dt
)1 1
t=O
=e-tl
t=O
=l

1.31. Find and sketch the first derivatives of the following signals:
(a) x(t) = u(t) - u(t - a), a> 0
(b) x(t) = t[u(t) - u(t - a)], a >0
t>O
(c) x(t) = sgn t = { 1
-1 t<O

(a) Using Eq. (l.30), we have

u'(t) = c5(t) and u'(t - a) = c5(t - a)

Then
x'(t) = u'(t) - u'(t - a) = c5(t) - c5(t - a)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. l-3l(a).

(b) Using the rule for differentiation of the product of two functions and the result from part (a), we have

x'(t) = [u(t) - u(t - a)] + t[c5(t) - c5(t - a)]

But by Eqs. (l.25) and (l.26)

tc5(t) = (O)c5(t) = 0 and tc5(t - a) = ac5(t - a)

Thus,
x'(t) = u(t) - u(t - a) - ac5 (t - a)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. l-3l(b).

(c) x(t) = sgn t can be rewritten as

x(t) = sgn t = u(t) - u(-t)

Then using Eq. (1.30), we obtain

x'(t) = u'(t) - u'(-t) = c5(t)- [-c5(t)] = 2c5(t)

Signals x(t) and x'(t) are sketched in Fig. 1-3 l(c).

Page 27 of 30
·- (iv) Let y 1(t) be the output produced by the shifted input current x 1(t)
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

= x(t - t0).
Then
y 1(t) = T{x(t - t0 )} = -1
c f'
-00
x(r - t0 )dr

= -1 fr -to x(J..)d.?.. = y(t - t0 )

c -00

Hence , the system is time-invariant.

(1.109)

where r(t) = tu(t) is known as the unit ramp function (Fig. 1-34). Since y(t) grows linearly in time
without bound, the system is not BIBO stable .

r(t) = tu(t)

0
Fig. 1-34 Unit ramp function .

1.34. Consider the system shown in Fig. 1-35. Determine whether it is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear,
(d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

Multiplier
x(t) y(f) = X(f) COS WC f

Fig. 1-35

(a) From Fig . 1-35 we have

y(t) = T{x(t)} = x(t) cos wet

Since the value of the output y(t) depends on only the present values of the input x(t), the system is memoryless.
(b) Since the output y(t) does not depend on the future values of the input x(t), the system is causal.
(c) Let x(t) = a 1x(t) + a 2 x(t). Then
y(t) = T{x(t)} = [a 1x 1(t) + a 2 x2 (t)] cos wet
= a 1x 1(t) cos wet+ a 2x2 (t) cos wet
= a 1y1(t) + a 2 Yz(t)

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.

Page 28 of 30
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

(d) Lety 1(t) be the output produced by the shifted inputx1(t) = x(t- t0 ). Then

But

Hence, the system is not time-invariant.

(e) Since Icos ro/ I ~ 1, we have
ly(t) I = lx(t) cos wet I ~ lx(t) I

Thus, if the input x(t) is bounded, then the output y(t) is also bounded and the system is BIBO stable.

1.35. A system has the input-output relation given by

y = T{x} = x 2 (l.110)

Show that this system is nonlinear.

T{x1 + x2 } = (x1 + x 2)2 = xf + x~ + 2x1x 2

=t-T{xi} + T{x2 } = xf + x~
Thus, the system is nonlinear.

1.36. The discrete-time system shown in Fig. 1-36 is known as the unit delay element. Determine whether the
system is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear, (d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

__x[n]
____,.~ I Unit .ly[n] =x[n-1] .."'
. delay

Fig. 1-36 Unit delay element

(a) The system input-output relation is given by

y[n] = T{x[n]} = x[n - 1] (l.111)

Since the output value at n depends on the input values at n - 1, the system is not memoryless.
(b) Since the output does not depend on the future input values, the system is causal.
(c) Letx[n] = a 1x 1[n] + a 2 x2[n]. Then
y[n] = T{a 1x 1[n] + a zX2[n]} = a 1x 1[n - 1] + azX2[n - 1]

= a1Y1[n]+a2Yz[n]

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
(d) Let y 1[n] be the response to x 1[n] = x[n - n0]. Then

y 1[n] = T{x1[n]} = x 1[n - l] = x[n - 1 - n0]

and
Hence, the system is time-invariant.
(e) Since

ly[n] I = lx[n - lJ I ~ k if lx[n] I ~ kfor all n

the system is BIBO stable.

Page 29 of 30
·-
1.37. Find the input-output relation of the feedback system shown in Fig. 1-37.
CHAPTER 1 Signals and Systems

+
x[n] Unit y[n]
delay

Fig. 1-37

From Fig. 1-37 the input to the unit delay element is x[n] - y[n]. Thus , the output y[n] of the unit delay element is
[Eq. (1.111)]

y[n] = x[ n - 1] - y[n - 1]

Rearranging, we obtain

y[n] + y[n - 1] = x[n - 1] (1.112)

Thus, the input-output relation of the system is described by a first-order difference equation with constant
coefficients.

1.38. A system has the input-output relation given by

y[n] = T{x[n]} = nx[n] (1.113)
Determine whether the system is (a) memoryless, (b) causal, (c) linear, (d) time-invariant, or (e) stable.

(a) Since the output value at n depends on only the input value at n, the system is memoryless.
(b) Since the output does not depend on the future input values, the system is causal.
(c) Letx[n] = a 1x 1[n] + a 2x2[n]. Then
y[n] = T{x[n]} = n{a 1x 1[n] + a 2 x 2 [n]}
= a 1nx 1[n] + a 2nx2[n] = a 1y 1[n] + a 2y2[n]

Thus, the superposition property (1.68) is satisfied and the system is linear.
(d) Lety 1[n] be the response tox 1[n] = x[n - n0 ]. Then

y 1[n] = T{x[n - n 0 ]} = nx[n - n 0 ]

But y[n - n0 ] = (n - n0) x[n - n0 ] # y 1[n]

Hence , the system is not time-invariant.

(e) Letx[n] = u[n]. Then y[n] = nu[n]. Thus , the bounded unit step sequence produces an output sequence that
grows without bound (Fig. 1-38) and the system is not BIBO stable .

x[n] = u[n] y[n] = nu[n]

- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1-38

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