CH:1 INTRODUCTION

Before the beginning of the formal rule of the Britishers in India, there was
a background of Indo-European economic relationship. The British
Company gained footing in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor Jahangir
granted the rights to establish a factory in Surat to Sir Thomas Roe, a
representative diplomat of Queen Elizabeth Ist of England. The formal
British rule in India is understood to have commenced in 1757, after the
Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to
the British East India Company. Henceforth the British Company
transformed from a commercial trading venture to a political entity which
virtually ruled India.
The first major conflict of the British against an Indian power was in
Bengal. During the short period of 1757 to 1765 three nawabs, Siraj-ud-
Daula, Mir Jafar and Mir Qasim ruled over Bengal but they failed to uphold
the sovereignty of the nawab and ultimately the reign of control passed into
the hands of the British.
The British, resorted to force in taking control of Bengal in 1757 under the
pretext of the “Plassey revolt”. The result was that the British achieved
victory in Bengal, for their use of force led to the decline of the very trade
they so longed to control. By the time Sirajud- Daula succeeded Ali Vardi
Khan as nawab of Bengal in 1756 trade privileges and their misuse by the
Company and its officers had already become an issue of conflict. Factors
like the fortification around Calcutta without the permission of the nawab
and repeated defiance of the nawab’s authority along with sheltering the
offenders of the nawab were the acts on the part of the English Company
which provoked the nawab. The Company officials suspected that nawab
was going to have an alliance with the French in Bengal and thus the
British retaliation started with hatching a conspiracy against the nawab in
alliance with his officers like Mir Jafar and Jagat Seth. The English victory
in the battle of Plassey (23 June, 1757) was pre-decided. It was not the
superiority of the military power but the conspiracy that helped the English
in wining the battle, which marked the beginning of nearly two centuries of
‘British Raj’ in the Indian subcontinent.
CH:2 CAUSES OF REVOLT OF 1857
There was a significant rebellion against British rule in 1857 known as the
Sepoy Mutiny, or First War of Independence. For the British crown, the
British East India Company served as a sovereign power in India.
Regarding the initial eruption of hatred and wrath resulting from the
pervasive discontent towards the British, the Revolt of 1857 was a stepping
stone. There were several causes for the uprising which are stated below:
1. Political Causes
The British policy of immediate annexation and expansion under
the Doctrine of Lapse, promoted by Lord Dalhousie, was the primary
Political Cause of the Revolt of 1857. The Doctrine of Lapse was a strategy
for annexation developed by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of
India, between 1848 and 1856. The notion of annexing those states without
inheritors was proposed. They no longer have the authority to rule, and
adoption will not restore it. The Doctrine of Lapse greatly incensed the
rulers of India against the British authority.
2. Economic Causes
Public animosity stemmed from the British tactic of economically
exploiting India. The general public suffered as a result of high tax
expectations and a strict program for collecting revenue. India’s economic
potential was exploited by the British, who used it to create a colonial
economy that benefited their capitalist interests. India endured destitution
after the Industrial Revolution in England because the arrival of British
manufactured goods undermined local handicrafts and enterprises.
In 1852, Lord Dalhousie gave the Inam Commission the task of looking
into the landlords’ title documents. Those who failed to provide
documentation proving their ownership rights had those rights revoked.
3. Military Causes
The British and Indian troops were treated very differently in terms of pay
and other amenities. High officers mistreated the Indian soldiers because
they were seen as inferior. Englishmen were the only people allowed to
hold the highest positions in the military.
The General Services Enlistment Act mandated that sepoys serve overseas,
including on British soil. The majority of Indian soldiers served in conflicts
for the English in Iran, China, and Crimea. Indian culture at the time
regarded crossing the Sea as a loss of religion. This increased resentment
toward the British.
4. Immediate Cause
the immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of new Enfield rifles
by the British East India Company. These rifles used paper cartridges
that had to be bitten off before loading, and it was rumored that the
cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat, which were sacred to Hindus
and Muslims respectively. This led to widespread resentment and anger
among Indian soldiers, who felt that the British were trying to force them to
go against their religious beliefs.
The introduction of the new rifles was seen as the last straw by many Indian
soldiers, who had already been disenchanted with the British due to a range
of issues such as low pay, poor working conditions, and lack of
opportunities for promotion. The resentment quickly spread to other parts
of the country, and soon the revolt turned into a mass uprising against
British colonial rule in India.
CH:4: LEADERS OF THE REVOLT
1. MANGAL PANDEY:
Mangal Pandey, synonymous with determination and courage, was born on
July 19, 1837, in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh. A brave sepoy and a
revolutionary soldier, Pandey played a crucial role in India's first rebellion
against British rule in 1857. He was a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native
Infantry (BNI) regiment of the East India Company. During the 1850s, the
British administration introduced cartridges allegedly laced with pig and
cow fat which is considered offensive to Muslim and Hindu religious
groups. The revolutionary freedom fighter instigated his fellow sepoy mates
against the British administration for their atrocities.
On March 29, 1857, he attacked two British officers in the Barrackpore
district of Kolkata, after which he was imprisoned. On April 8, 1857, he
was sentenced to death by hanging in the province of Bengal. His
revolutionary movement and dedication inspired many Indians to
participate in the Indian freedom struggle to eliminate British rule. The
revolt he started soon reached many parts of the country, and Indians
started coming forward against the British government.
2. BEGUM HAZARAT MAHAL:
Hazrat Mahal was born in 1830 in Faizabad of Uttar Pradesh. At a tender
age itself, she showed good talent in literature. She was married to Wajid
Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh.

On 13 February 1856, the British troops imprisoned Wajid Ali Shah. They
sent him to Calcutta on March 13 and occupied Awadh illegitimately. This
irked the people and native rulers. They revolted against the British under
the leadership of Begum Hazrat Mahal. Later, Begum Hazrat Mahal
declared her son Birjis Khadir as the Nawab of Awadh on July 7, 1857.
Hazarat Mahal ruled the state on behalf of her son for about ten months and
challenged the British force by inspiring patriotism among the people and
fellow native rulers. But, when Delhi, the prime center for the First War of
Independence was captured, the British troops surrounded and attacked
Lucknow in March 1859. There was a fierce battle between the Company
troops and the Begum troops. When defeat became inevitable, Begum
Hazrat Mahal retreated to the Nepal forests along with co-revolutionary
leaders like Nana Sahib Peshwa.

The British rulers offered her a huge amount of money and luxurious
facilities in order to bring her back to Lucknow. But Begum denied them
and made it clear that nothing else was acceptable to her except the
Independent Awadh state. Begum Hazrat Mahal was struggling for the
independence of her state till her last breath. She passed away in
Kathmandu of Nepal on April 7, 1879.

3. NANA SAHEB

A Maratha, one of the leaders of the First War of Independence, Nana

Saheb was born in 1824 to Narayan Bhatt and Ganga Bai. In 1827 his
parents went to the court of the last Peshwa Baji Rao, who adopted Nana
Saheb, thus making him heir-presumptive to the throne. On the death of the
last Peshwa, Baji Rao-II, in 1851 the Company's Government stopped the
annual pension and the title. Nana Saheb's appeal to the Court of Directors
was not accepted. This made him hostile towards the British rulers. When
the First War of Independence broke out, he assumed leadership of the
mutineers in Kanpur. After seizing Kanpur, which had a small British
garrison, Nana Saheb proclaimed himself the Peshwa and called for the
total extermination of the British power in India.

Kanpur was recaptured by the British under General Havelock and the last
serious engagement (16 July, 1857) resulted in a total rout of Nana's forces.
Nana rode away to an unknown destination in Nepal in 1859 and probably
perished in the jungle.

CH:5: ROLE OF ASSAM

Background of the revolt in Assam:
In the nineteenth century Assam entered into a new political and socio-
economic phase with the beginning of British rule in Assam. The third
decade of the nineteenth century brought political changes along with the
treaty of Yandboo which was signed on twenty fourth February 1826 by
general sir Archibald Campbell on British side and the governor of Ligaing
Maha Ming Hla Hatin from the Burmese side. According to the clause of
the treaty of the Yandboo the Burmese renounced its claim over Assam.
The withdrawal of the Burmese provided the British with the opportunity to
create spear of influence in the region. Thus the treaty of Yandboo marked
the beginning of the new era in the history of Assam which brought socio-
political changes in this region. British regime was welcomed by the
common people of Assam as well as the noble of the Ahom Monarchy
because the common people considered the Britishers as their saviour and
the noble of the Ahom monarchy thought the coming of the British regime
as temporary as they were totally unaware of the colonial mindset of the
British. Benudhar Sarma stated,”British came to Assam only to deliver her
people from the clutches of the Burmese, they fastened the Assamese
slowly but surely to their own yoke; an artful fellow indeed a devil in a
doublet.” The British regime gave more importance to the collection of
taxes from the masses but the economic interest of the people were ignored
by the British government which brought dissatisfaction among the
common masses which later contributed as one of the causes of revolt of
1857 in Assam.
Maniram Dewan, Piyali Baruah and Revolt of 1857
Maniram and Piyali Baruah must be counted as two of the brightest
luminaries whose name posterity must remember with reverent care .
Though Maniram at first appreciated the British rule in Assam but later he
realized his fault when he was not given enough opportunity to extend his
tea gardens at chinamara and chenglung. The role of Piyali Baruah in the
revolt of 1857 was decisive. The Chief planner of the revolt was Maniram
Dewan but it was Piyali Phukan who brought the plan to action. The revolt
was planned but an incident took place which led to opening up of the
whole plan before the British government and also changed the scenario of
the Revolt in Assam. As a result, the leaders were arrested one by one
which destroyed the whole planning of the revolt in Assam.
Nature of the Revolt of 1857 in Assam
In Assam though revolt was started by the rising middle class to protect
their interest by restoring Kandeswar Singha to the Ahom throne, but they
got the support from the miltary and common people who were also
dissatisfied with the new system. Sekhar Bandhopadhaya mentioned that
those who revolted had two elements among them- the feudal elements and
big landlords on one end and the peasantry on the other. The aristocratic
class revolted when they lost their privileges while the peasantry had also
revolted because of the increased tax. The leaders of the revolt of 1857 of
Assam had vision to outset British and to restore Ahom Monarchy. Despite
many efforts, the revolt failed due to many causes like lack of proper
leadership, absence of unity among the various classes of Assam, negative
attitude of the intellectuals towards the revolt, to name a few.
CH:6: CAUSES OF FAILURE AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE
REVOLT OF 1857
CAUSES:
There had been many reasons that led to the collapse of this powerful
rebellion some of which are stated below:-
1. Lack Of Spirit of Nationalism
The rebellions of the revolt lacked the spirit of nationalism. They
supported the sepoys just only because of hatred towards ‘Firangi’ East
India Company. Modern nationalism was yet unknown in India. Patriotism
meant the love of one’s small locality or region or at most one’s state.
All-India interests and the awareness were yet to come that bound all
Indians together.
2. Lack of Unity
There was a lack of unity among rebels; while sepoys of Bengal were
revolting against East India Company whereas the soldiers of Punjab and
Bombay supported the Company against the sepoys. Sepoys and leaders
like Tantia Tope battled for the Mughal rule while Sikhs of Punjab did not
want to go back under the Muslim ruler. Such problems turned into loss of
team spirit withinside the ranks of rebels themselves.
3. Poor Arms And Equipment
The revolt was started because of fats used in the grease of Enfield rifle
and rejection to use it by the sepoys. The rebellions were battling
generally with swords, spears, lances, and very limited guns and muskets.
On the different side, the East India Company was equipped with rearmost
munitions of war like the Enfield rifle. The modern Enfield rifle and other
firearms were manufactured by the Europeans and the Indians had no idea
of how to make it. The sepoys were working under the East India
Company and guns which were used by them were provided by the
Company. Once the ammunitions reached their limit, sepoy and other
rebellions shifted to former firearms like swords and spears.
4. Poorly Organized
There was a lack of coordination on the Indian sides, even, the sepoys who
started the revolt were unorganized and behaved in an uncontrolled
manner. Each leader of the revolt fought in their own territory and lacked
connections with others. The Englishmen, who were alien to the
subcontinent, were the master of the sea and got timely help from Britain
to crush the revolt.
5. No Common Goal
The revolt saw no common idea or goal behind it. After taking control of
many regions leaders and rebels had no forward-looking plan for India.
Every rebellion joined it because of their own interest, rulers joined
because they were losing power in the region, Sepoy had their reason of
inferiority and wanted to revive to the glory of Mughals, civilians because
of religious interference, peasants wanted to remove zamindars and
moneylenders, etc. This made it an easy task for the Britishers to suppress
the revolt.
6. British Advantage
The industrial revolution and modernization of society led to the invention
and use of the Telegraph and postal communication on a broad scale in
England. Also, the Britishers had highly skilled and experienced generals
who played a significant role in suppressing the revolt. The English were
masters of the sea route and had a very large navy across the world
through which they managed to move their soldiers from England to India
quickly. Englishmen proved themselves superior by using electric
Telegram and postal communication to keep in update and maintain
coordination between soldiers and commander.
CONSEQUENCES

The immediate result of the mutiny was a general housecleaning of the

Indian administration. The East India Company was abolished in favour of
the direct rule of India by the British government. In concrete terms, this
did not mean much, but it introduced a more personal note into the
government and removed the unimaginative commercialism that had
lingered in the Court of Directors. The financial crisis caused by the mutiny
led to a reorganization of the Indian administration’s finances on a modern
basis. The Indian army was also extensively reorganized.

Another significant result of the mutiny was the beginning of the policy of
consultation with Indians. The Legislative Council of 1853 had contained
only Europeans and had arrogantly behaved as if it were a full-fledged
parliament. It was widely felt that a lack of communication with Indian
opinion had helped to precipitate the crisis. Accordingly, the new council of
1861 was given an Indian-nominated element. The educational and public
works programs (roads, railways, telegraphs, and irrigation) continued with
little interruption; in fact, some were stimulated by the thought of their
value for the transport of troops in a crisis. But insensitive British-imposed
social measures that affected Hindu society came to an abrupt end.

Finally, there was the effect of the mutiny on the people of India
themselves. Traditional society had made its protest against the incoming
alien influences, and it had failed. The princes and other natural leaders had
either held aloof from the mutiny or had proved, for the most part,
incompetent. From this time all serious hope of a revival of the past or an
exclusion of the West diminished. The traditional structure of Indian
society began to break down and was eventually superseded by a
Westernized class system, from which emerged a strong middle class with a
heightened sense of Indian nationalism.

CONCLUSION
The revolt of 1857, which began as a mutiny by Indian soldiers in the
British East India Company's army, quickly spread to other parts of the
country, with Indian civilians joining the rebellion.
However, the revolt was ultimately suppressed by the British, who regained
control of India and consolidated their rule over the country. Despite the
failure of the revolt, it played a crucial role in shaping India's struggle for
independence, and many of the leaders of India's independence
movement were inspired by the courage and sacrifice of those who
participated in the revolt.
The Revolt of 1857 showed that the British colonial rule in India was not
invincible and that Indians were capable of rising up against colonial
oppression. The revolt also highlighted the need for unity among different
groups of Indians, including Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, in their struggle
for independence.
In the aftermath of the revolt, the British government took steps to improve
its administration and governance of India, including the abolition of
the East India Company and the transfer of power to the British Crown.
However, these measures were largely cosmetic, and the British continued
to rule India with an iron fist.
The way forward, therefore, was for Indians to continue their struggle for
independence through peaceful means, such as nonviolent protests and civil
disobedience, as advocated by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi. Through these
efforts, Indians were eventually able to achieve independence in 1947,
ending centuries of colonial rule.